PC 210S 
.L7 
1852 
Copy 1 





& 



»** 



3 






| LIBRARY OF CONGRKSS. S 



.LI 



m 

t*5 



m 



I UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, ! 



&* 



; i 



THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL 



GRAMMAR 



THE FRENCH TONGUE 

IN WHICH 

ALL THE PRINCIPAL DIFFICULTIES ARE EXPLAINED AGREEABLY 

TO THE DECISIONS OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY. 



BY M. DE L.EYIZAC. 



£>dl 






2>"ETV EDITION, REVISED Ai'I) IMPROVED. 

| BY MONSIEUR ROLLIN, B A., 

PROFESSOR OF AXCIEXT AND MODERN LANGUAGES, ETC., ETC» 




LONDON: 

WILLIAM TEGG AtfD CO,, 85, QtTEE^-STEEET, 
CHEAPSIDE. 

MDCCCLII. 






LONDON: 

PRINTED BY JAMES NICHOLS, 

HOXTON-SQUARE. 



EDITOR'S PREFACE. 



To add one word of eulogy to the high and well- deserved 
reputation enjoyed by the works of M. de Levizac, both in 
England and in France, would be a work of supereroga- 
tion. In England, the learned author s Grammar of the 
French Tongue has been universally adopted as the model 
for our most celebrated scholars to follow, bearing, as it 
does, the impress of sound practical knowledge, a perfect 
command over the various subjects treated of, and an ele- 
gance and purity of diction in its exercises, that indeed 
justify the French Academy in pronouncing him one of 
the best French grammarians, and of which no greater 
proof could possibly be afforded than their frequent quota- 
tion of him as a most competent authority. 

To base, then, a work, containing the modern alterations 
and amendments introduced into the French language, yet 
at the same time preserving the original Rules, Practical 
Examples, and Definitions, upon so fair a foundation, 
must evidently be safe. It has also been deemed expe- 
dient not to deviate from the subdivision of the Ele- 
mentary part of the Grammar from the General Syntax, 
and of the General from the Particular or more difficult 
Syntax. 

The Author, approaching his subject with the respect 
and reverence due to its importance, has laboured care- 



IV PREFACE. 

fully and minutely to point out and explain every diffi- 
culty which the student is likely to encounter in his 
progress, and, by the addition of Rules and Observations 
of the highest importance, to leave his mind free from all 
doubt or hesitation as to the proper course to pursue. 

A large space has been devoted to the practical method 
of insuring a correct Pronunciation of the French Tongue, 
a subject of the very first consequence, and one that is 
absolutely necessary to be well understood by the learner, 
to render his study and attention of extensive benefit. 
For this reason, great pains have been taken to incul- 
cate this knowledge on his mind, and the principles laid 
down will be found invaluable aids in arriving at per- 
fection. 

The Vocabulary inserted in the work will prove of the 
highest utility in writing out the exercises, and its useful- 
ness is much enhanced from the gender being attached to 
each word. 

Numerous Moral Exercises, more consonant to our pre- 
sent parlance and customs, have been introduced, with a 
view of perfecting the work, and of accustoming the mind 
of the youthful learner to the phraseology of every-day 
conversation. The difficulties which present themselves 
from the frequent clashing of the two languages in their 
construction, have been maturely considered and observed 
upon, and the difference between the idioms of both 
tongues, a subject of some magnitude, so disposed of as to 
prevent and obviate the errors into which the learner 
would otherwise fall, from a literal translation. Phrases 
illustrating some of these difficulties, are placed at the end 
of the Work, and these will afford practical proofs of the 
points in question ; the references to the Remarks made 



PREFACE. V 

on these subjects in the body of the work, will also mate- 
rially assist the pupil. 

Some useful alterations have been made in the general 
arrangement of the Work, calculated to lead the student 
gradually on his path, from the simplest to the most 
intricate portions of his study. The typographical depart- 
ment has been carefully attended to, and the substance of 
the Rules and Regulations clearly pointed out by Roman 
or Italic characters, as the case required. 

As it is highly necessary that the pupil should not only 
be made acquainted with what he has to acquire, but 
should also have facility afforded him for immediately 
turning to any remarks on a particular subject, a copious 
classified Table of Contents has been affixed, embracing 
under separate heads every thing of the least utility, and 
so ample that it may be well termed a Resume detaille 
of the whole Work. 

In these days of "literary precocity," when science, 
developing its mighty attributes, brings distant regions to 
our own thresholds, as it were, and a visit to our neigh- 
bours on the other side of the Channel has become a mere 
summer's day excursion, it is not extraordinary that 
attempts should also be made to propel the human mind 
at an analogous rate, and that we see gigantic notices of 
French without a Master, and French learned in Six 
Lessons, announced in our public journals, and exhibited 
at every market-cross, That, from the commercial and 
scientific relations which this mighty country maintains 
with the whole world, a perfect knowledge of a language 
so widely disseminated as that of the French, is of para- 
mount importance, no one will be hardy enough to deny ; 
but we would warn the student against the fallaciousness 

a 2 



VI PKEFACE. 

of such specious promises, and invite him who wishes to 
attain a thorough knowledge of the grammatical difficul- 
ties and correct pronunciation of that copious and elegant 
tongue, to apply himself with unwearied attention to the 
rules here laid down, allowing due time for his mind 
to receive gradually the impress of correctness and of 
excellence. 

Sedulously and earnestly, the Author, himself a native 
of France, has exerted his ability to render this work 
acceptable to the student, and worthy of public patronage ; 
and he fearlessly lays before them the results of his untir- 
ing labours, with a firm conviction that they will receive 
that justice ever bestowed upon works calculated to 
remove the difficulties that strew the path of wisdom, 

London, March, 1844. 



cc 


>NT 


ENTS, 




J 


Page 




Page 


Definition of Grammar 


1 


Of Man . 


47 


French Alphabet 


2 


Of the Body 


ib. 


Observations on the French 




Of the Mind and its Facul- 




Alphabet 


3 


ties .... 


50 


Of Accentuation 


ib. 


Of Quadrupeds 


53 


The French Sounds . 


4 


Of Birds . 


55 


Additional combined Simple 




Of Fishes . . 


56 


Sounds 


6 


Of Reptiles and Insects 


51 


Coalition of letters forming 




Of Meats and Drinks 


58 


the Nasal Sounds . 


7 


Of the Dressing Apparel . 


59 


Further additional French 




Of a House and Furniture 


61 


sounds exemplified 


ib. 


Of a City 


63 


General exceptions of the 




Of Trades, Arts, Professions 


65 


Nasal Sounds 


8 


Of the Country, Husbandry 


66 


Of French Dipthongs 


10 


Of Flowers 


ib. 


Table of Ditto . 


1, 


Of Fruits 


61 


Observations on Ditto 


13 


Of Herbs and Plants . 


68 


Of Consonants 


15 


Of Trees and Shrubs 


69 


Observations on the sound 




Promiscuous Words . 


ib. 


of Ch . , 


16 


Of Metals, etc. 


70 


Of the letter Y . 


31 


Of Colours, Precious Stones 


71 


Of French Monosyllables 


33 


Of Principal Countries 


ib. 


First Reading Lesson 


36 


Common National Names 


72 


Of French Dissyllables 


37 


Orthographical French Signs 




Second Reading Lesson . 


39 


and Punctuation 


73 


Words of Three Syllables 


ib. 


Of the Apostrophe and Eli- 




Third Reading Lesson 


40 


sion .... 


ib. 


Words of Four Syllables 


ib. 


Observations on Ditto 


ib. 


Fourth Reading Lesson 


ib. 


Of the Cedilla and Diaeresis 


15 


Words of Five and Six syl- 




Of the Hyphen . 


73 


lables .... 


41 


Of Gender; Easy mode of 




Fifth Reading Lesson 


ib. 


distinguishing the gender 




Words of Seven and Eight 




of a French Noun 


ib. 


Syllables . 


42 


Table of Masculine and Fe- 




Sixth Reading Lesson 


ib. 


minine Terminations 


11 


Vocabulary, French and 




Substantives Masculine in 




English : 




one sense, and Feminine 




Of the Universe 


43 


in another . 


78 



via 



CONTENTS. 



Page 
Explanatory Table of the re- 
lations between Regimens 
and Cases . . 83 

Explanation of Abbrevi- 
ations in Exercises . 84 
Introduction to Grammar ; 
General Definition of the 
Nine Parts of Speech . 86 

PART I. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER I. 

Of the Substantive or Noun 88 
Of the Gender and Number 

of Substantives . . 89 

How to form the Plural . 90 

Observations on Ditto . 91 

Exercises on the Substantive 93 

CHAPTER II. 

Of the Article . . .95 

Of the Elision ; Contraction 

of the Article ; Concord 

of the Article with the 

Noun .... 96 

Of the Partitive Article, du, 

de la, de /', des . .101 

Of the Indefinite Article 103 

Recapitulation of the Ar- 
ticles .... 103 
Observations upon Ditto 105 
Promiscuous Exercises on 

the Article . . .106 
Of Negations . . 107 

CHAPTER III. 

Of the Adjective ; how to 
form the Feminine . .109 

List of Irregular Adjectives, 
in their feminine endings 112 

Substantives Adjectives which 
change eur into rice for the 
feminine . . . 113 

Exercises on the Adjective . ib. 



Page 
Formation of the Plural of 
Adjectives ; degrees of 
signification in the Adjec- 
tive .... 
Observations on Adjectives lib 
Agreement of the Adjective 

with the Substantive . 1*21 
Promiscuous Exercises on 
the Article and the Adjec- 
tive . . . .124 
Nouns and Adjectives of 
Number . . . .125 

CHAPTER IV. 

Of the Pronoun ; its Na- 
ture and Classification . 128 

Sect. I. — Personal Pronouns 
of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd 
persons .... ib. 

Reflected and Reciprocal Pro- 
nouns of the 3rd person 133 

Of the Relative Pronouns 
en and y . . . 135 

Sect. II. — Of Possessive Pro- 
nouns ; Conjunctive Pro- 
nouns . . . .136 

Possessive Relative Pronouns 138 

Sect. III.-— Of Relative Ditto 140 
„ IV.— Of Absolute Ditto 144 
„ V. — Of Demonstrative 
Ditto .... 146 

Sect. VI.— Of Indefinite ditto 148 

General Exercise on the 
Pronouns . . .155 

CHAPTER V. 

Of the Verb ; its definition 157 
Subject, Attribute, Object 

or Regimen of a Verb; 

its division . . . ib. 
To distinguish the Subject 

from the Regimen . .159 
Subdivision of Verbs . 160 
Difference between Reflected 

and Reciprocal Verbs . 161 
Moods, their definition . 163 
Tenses, their nature . . ib. 



CONTENTS. 



IX 



Page 

Formation of the Future and 
the Conditional . .165 

Formation of the Imperative 166 

Formation of the Imperfect 
of the Subjunctive . 167 

Of Conjugations ; their 
terminations . . . 168 

Conjugation of the auxiliary 
verb Avoir, to have . 169 

Exercises on Avoir, with a 
negative . . . 177 

Of Avoir with interrogation 
and affirmatively . . 180 

Of Avoir with interrogation 
and negatively . .181 

Conjugation of the Auxiliary 
Verb Etre, to be . 183 

Simple Negative and Inter- 
rogative Sentences . 190 

Model of the First Regular 
Conjugation in er, Aimer, 
to love . . . .191 

Preliminary Observations on 
the Exercises . . 192 

Verbs conjugated like Aimer 201 

Models of the second Regu- 
lar Conjugation inzr, four 
branches, flnir, sentir, ouv- 
rir, tenir . . . . 203 

Observation on the First 
Branch . . . ib. 

Observations on the Second, 
Third, and Fourth Ditto 208 

Model of the Third Regular 
Conjugation in oir, Rece- 
voir, to receive . .211 

Observation on the Fourth 
Regular Conjugation . 214 

Model of the Fourth Regu- 
lar Conjugation in re, five 
branches, plaire, paraitre, 
reduire, Plaindre, rendre 215 

Of Reflective Verbs; Model 
of a Reflective Verb, Se 
Repentir .... 222 

Table of Pronominal Verbs 227 

Example of a pronominal 
Verb used negatively . 229 



Page 

Example of a Pronominal 
Verb used interrogatively 230 

Example of a Pronominal 
Verb conjugated interro- 
gatively and negatively . 231 

Of Avoir, with personal ob- 
jective Pronouns . 232 

Of Avoir, with the pronoun 
y . ib. 

Of Eire with the pronouns 
le, en, and y . . . ib. 

Conjugation of the Passive 
Verbs .... 234 

Sentences with a Negation 
and the particle en . ib. 

Same sentences interroga- 
tively and negatively . 235 

Conjugation of the Neuter 
Verbs .... 236 

Conjugation of Impersonal 
Verbs . . . .238 

List of Impersonal Verbs 
often used in conversation 239 

Various ways of construing 
Falloir . . . 241 

Conjugation of the Imper- 
sonal Verb Y Avoir . 242 

Of the Irregular Verbs ; of 
the First Conjugation, Al- 
ter, to go . . . 243 

Conjugation of S'en Alter, 
to go away . . . 245 

Observations on Irregular 
Verbs of the First Conju- 
gation . . . 247 

Irregular Verbs of the Se- 
cond Conjugation in ir, 
First branch, finir . . 249 

Easy mode of finding the 
model of any verb required ib. 

Second Branch, sentir . 251 

Third Branch, ouvrir . . 257 

Irregular Verbs of the Third 
Conjugations . . 258 

Irregular Verbs of the Fourth 
Conjugation, First branch, 
Plaire ... 264 

Second Branch, Paraitre . 266 



CONTENTS. 



Page 
Third Branch, Reduire . 267 
Fifth Branch, Rendre . 273 
Table of Verbs ; Primitive 
Tenses of the four Regu- 
lar Conjugations . . 279 
Primitive Tenses of the Ir- 
regular Verbs, with some 
Defective ones. . . 281 
Supplement to the Verbs . 283 
Of Regular Conjugations 284 
Regular Conjugation in er 285 



in ir, 



issant, i . . . ib. 

List of Verbs conjugated as 

Punir . . . .286 
Regular Conjugation in ir, 

ant, i . . . . ib. 

List of Verbs conj ugated as 

Sentir . . . . 287 
Regular Conjugation in oir, 

ant, u . . . 288 

Regular Conjugation in re, 

ant, u . . . ib. 



ant, t 



in re, 



ib. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Of Prepositions ; their va- 
rieties and properties . 290 

Prepositions of Place . ib. 

of Order . 291 

of Union . 292 

of Opposition 293 

of Separation ib. 

denoting the 

End . . . .294 

• denoting the 

Cause and Means . ib. 

■ Use of a, de, 

en . .... 295 

■ ■■ joined to an 

English Verb, not expres- 
sed in French . . 298 

CHAPTER VII. 
Of the Adverb ; its nature 
and formation . . 299 



Page 
Compound Adverbs . 301 

Distinction between an Ad- 
verb and a Preposition . ib. 
Adverbs of Doubt and Affir- 
mation . . . 302 

of Order, Place, or 

Distance . . . 303 

of Time . . 304 

of Quality . . 305 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Of Conjunctions ; their 

definition and properties 306 
Use of the Conjunction Que 310 

CHAPTER IX. 

Of Interjections . . 313 
Recapitulation or Promis- 
cuous Exercises on the 
Nine parts of Speech . 314 

PART II. 

SYNTAX. 

Definition of Syntax . 319 

General Syntax. 
CHAPTER I. 

Of the Substantive . .319 

List of Substantives having 
no Plural ... 320 

List of Substantives having 
no singular . . . ib. 

Substantives spelt alike in 
Singular and Plural . 321 

Of the formation of the Plu- 
ral of Compound Nouns 322 

CHAPTER II. 

Of the Article . . . 324 
Remarks upon a or an . 325 
Comparative Table of Words 
with and without the 
Article . . . . 326 
Observations on Measure, 
Weight, etc. . . 328 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



Page 
CHAPTER III. 

Of the Adjective ; its 

agreement with the Noun 329 
Exceptions to this rule . 330 
Agreement of the Adjective 

with the last Substantive ib. 
Adjectives or Participles se- 
parated from their Sub- 
stantives . . . 321 
Adjectives of Dimension . 332 
Regimen of the Adjective 333 
Recapitulary Exercises on 
Articles and Adjectives 334 

CHAPTER IV. 

Of the Pronouns; Personal 
Pronouns . . . 336 

Their various Functions in 
the Speech . . . ib. 

Pronouns acting as Subjects ib. 

used Objectively 339 

Me, te, moi, toi, between the 
Imperative and the Infini- 
tive . . . . 339 

Exceptions to the same . 340 

Regimen of Relative Pro- 
nouns . . . . 341 

Of Pronouns Absolute ; quel, 
oil, used interrogatively 343 

Of Demonstrative Pronouns 344 

Remarks on Ce, Cette, etc. ib. 

Observations on Celui-ci, 
Celui-ld . . . 345 

Of Indefinite Pronouns, First 
Class . . . .347 

Remarks on Autrui, Per- 
sonne, Rien . . . 348 

Second Class ; Quelque, 
Chaque, Quelconque . . 350 

Third Class ... 352 

Remarks on Autre, V Tin et 
V Autre .... 

— on Mime, Tel, Phi- 

sieurs, Tout 

Fourth Class : those fol- 



lowed by Que 



354 
355 

358 



Page 
CHAPTER V. 

Of the Verb; Agreement 
with the Subject ; Exam- 
ples of the same . . 361 

Verbs having two Subjects 
in the Plural . . 302 

Verbs relating to Subjects of 
different Persons . . ib. 

Verbs having que relative for 
Subject ... 363 

Of the Regimen of Verbs, 
direct and indiiect . . ib, 

Passive 

Verbs .... 365 

Observation on Ditto . ib. 

Rule respecting a and de . 366 

On the Nature of Bloods 
and Tenses . . . 367 

Of the Indicative Mood ib. 

The present, imperfect, pre- 
terit definite, and preterit 
indefinite Tenses . . ib. 

The preterit anterior . 368 

The pluperfect, future abso- 
lute, and future anterior 369 

Of the Conditional Mood ; 
Present and Past Tenses 370 

Of the Imperative Mood 
and its Compound . ib. 

Of the Subjunctive Mood; 
Present Tense ". 371 

The Imperfect, Preterit, and 
Pluperfect Tenses 372 

Of the Infinitive Mood . 373 

Observation on Ditto . ib. 

Of the Participle Present ; 
its termination . . 374 

Gender and Number of the 
Participle Present . 375 

Explanation of the term Ge- 
rund . . . ib. 

Of the Participle Past; its 
Agreement with its Sub- 
ject .... 376 

Observation on Ditto . . ib. 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 



Page 
Participle Past never agrees 

with its Subject when it 

follows Avoir . . 377 
Observations on this Rule 378 
Agreement of the Participle 

with its Regimen . ib. 

Observation on the Regimen 

before que, me, te, etc. . 379 
Place of the Regimen of the 

Participle Past . . 3S0 
Gender of the Participle 

Past . . . .381 
Observation on the Gender 

of the Participle Past ih^ 

CHAPTER VI. 

Of Prepositions ; their Go- 
vernment . . . 383 

Place of Prepositions . 384 

Use of the Article with Pre- 
positions . . . 385 

Exceptions to this Rule . ib. 

Nouns governed by the Pre- 
position En . . 386 

Remarks on Eleven Prepo- 
sitions .... ib. 

Repetition of the Preposi- 
tions . . . .387 

CHAPTER VII. 

Of the Adverbs; their 
place .... 388 

Placing of Compound Ad- 
verbs and Adverbial Ex- 
pressions . . . 389 

Exceptions to these Rules ib. 

Adverbs modifying Adjec- 
tives .... 390 

of Quantity and Com- 
parison .... ib. 

Remarks on Bien . , ib. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Of Conjunctions ; their 
Government . . 392 

Conjunctions with the Indi- 
cative Mood . . . 393 



Page 
Conjunctions relating to the 
Subjunctive Mood . . 394 

PART III. 

PARTICULAR SYNTAX- 

Explanation of Particular 



Syntax 



395 



CHAPTER I. 

Of the Substantive ; its 
Functions 

When the Substantive is in 
Subject 

When in Apostrophe . 

When in Regimen . 

General Rule on Two Sub- 
stantives .... 

Observation on this Rule 

CHAPTER II. 

Of the Article 

General Rules on the Place 
of the Article 

Exceptions to such Rules 

General Principle . 

Article placed with all Sub- 
stantives common denot- 
ing a whole species of 
things .... 

Observation on this Rule 

Article when used in a sense 
of Extract, etc. . 

Exceptions to this Rule 

Observations upon some ex- 
pressions . 

Place of the Article before 
Nouns Proper . 

Exceptions to this Rule . 

Article not used before the 
Noun .... 

Article preceded by Prono- 
minal Adjectives . 

Remarks on names of Dei- 
ties, Men, etc., and the use 
of the Article- . . .408 



ib. 

395 
396 
397 

ib. 
ib. 



398 

ib. 
399 

400 



ib. 
ib. 

401 
402 

ib. 

403 
404 

405 

407 



i 



CONTENTS. 



xm 



CHAPTER III. 

Df the Adjective ; with the 
Article ... 409 

Place of the Article when a 
Noun is accompanied by 
two opposite Adjectives 410 

The Article used before the 
Adjective . . . ib. 

Place of the Pronominal Ad- 
jectives mon,ton, son, etc. 412 

Adjectives qualifying seve- 
ral Substantives . . 413 

Place of the Adjectives with 
the Substantive . . 414 

Exceptions to this Rule ib. 

Adjectives placed after the 
Substantive . . 415 

. expressing Moral 

Qualities . . .416 

Regimen of Adjectives . 417 

Adjectives of Number; re- 
marks on Unieme, Cent, 
etc 418 

Use made of the Cardinal 
Numbers for the Ordinal 419 

CHAPTER IV. 

Of the Pronoun ; Personal 
Pronouns . . . 420 

Pronouns always in Subject ib. 

always in Apos- 
trophe .... 421 

— _ always in Regimen 422 

Observation upon tbe Re- 
gimen of the Verb . . ib. 

Remark on le, la, les, y, and 
en .... 423 

Particular English expres- 
sions, how construed in 
French .... ib. 

Remarks on nous, vous, moi, 
toi, etc. . . . 424 

on lui, eux, elles . 425 

Cases where the Pronouns 
die, elles, eux, lui, leur, may 
apply to things . . 427 



Page 

Of the Pronoun Soi, gene- 
rally accompanied by a 
Preposition . . . 428 

Cases where it may be em- 
ployed without the Pre- 
position . . . ib. 

Difficulty respecting the Pro- 
noun Le explained . . 429 

Observation upon Le . 430 

Upon Le when holding the 
place of an Adjective . ib. 

Observation on this Rule 431 

Repetition of the Personal 
Pronouns . . . ib. 

Observation on this Rule 432 

Repetition of Pronouns of 
the Third Person . . ib. 

Observation on this Rule 433 

When Personal Pronouns are 
in Subject . . ib. 

When repeated before Verbs 434 

Observation on this Rule . ib. 

Relations of the Pronouns 
of the third person to a 
Noun expressed before 435 

Of Possessive Pronouns ; 
how to express them in 
French ... 436 

General Rule upon this Sub- 
ject .... 437 

Observations on such Rule lb. 

Rule on the use of Posses- 
sive Pronouns in some 
cases .... 439 

Observations on this Rule 440 

Of Relative Pronouns ; sub- 
ject and regimen of Qui 442 

Observation on the Regimen 
Direct .... ib. 

Separation of Qui from its 
antecedent . . ib. 

Observations on this rule . ib. 

Relation of Qui to Nouns in 
a determinate sense . 444 

Important Observations on 
this rule . . . Ok 



XIV 



CONTENTS. 



Page 

Relation of Que to persons 
and things ; its Regimen 445 

Instance of Que appearing 
to be regimen indirect . ib. 

Rules regarding Lequel and 
JDont .... 446 

When we can use Auquel . ib. 

Quoi, its relation to things 447 

Relation of Oil, d' Ou, Par oil ib. 

Of Absolute Pronouns ; rela- 
tion of Que and Quoi . 448 

Observation on Que and 
Quoi .... 449 

Demonstrative Pronouns ; of 
Ce . 450 

Observations on the use of 
Ce 451 

Modes of employing Celui 453 

Observation on these Modes ib. 

Remarks on Ceci and Cela ib. 

Indefinite Pronouns ; of On 454 

Gender of Quiconque . ib. 

Chacun always singular ; Re- 
marks on the use of son, 
sa, ses .... 455 

Observations on Chacun 456 

Gender of Personne when a 
Pronoun . . . 457 

Remarks on Ni V Uni V Autre ib. 

Tout, where placed; some- 
times an Adverb . 458 

Important Rules on Tout ib. 

Exception to such Rules ib. 

Use of Quelque — que . 459 

When followed by a Verb in 
the Subjunctive . 460 

CHAPTER V. 

Of the Verb ; its agreement 
with its Subject . . 461 

Exceptions . . . ib. 

Of the Collective Partitive 462 

When the Verb is put in the 
Plural .... 463 

Observations on Infinite and 
la Plupart . . . ib, 



Page 
Place of the Subject with 

regard to the Verb . 464 
Exceptions to this Rule . 468 
Remarks on Interrogative 

Sentences . . 466 
Incidental Ditto ib 



With an Impersonal Verb, 
and tel, ainsi . . . 467 

Remarks on the Subjunctive ib. 

on when the Sub- 
ject is followed by several 
words . . . ib. 

Government of Verbs . 468 

Exception to this Rule . 469 

Observation on this Rule . ib. 

Verb having two regimens ib. 

The Noun governed by two 
Verbs at once . , 470 

The Proper or Accidental 
Use of Moods and Tenses 471 

Of the Present . . . ib. 

Of the Imperfect, the Pre- 
terit Definite, and the Pre- 
terit Indefinite . . 472 

Observation on these Tenses 473 

Of the Pluperfect . . 474 

Examples of the different 
Preterits . . . 475 

Of the Supercompound and 
the Future . . . 477 

Of the Conditional-, how 
made use of . . 478 

Observation on the use of 
the Conditional and of the 
Future . . . ,480 

General Rule on the Sub- 
junctive . . .481 

Useful Observations on do, 
did, will, would, etc. . 482 

Relations between the Ten- 
ses of the Indicative . 484 

Observation on Ditto . . ib. 

Relations of the Tenses of 
the Subjunctive to those 
of the Indicative . . 486 

Exceptions to the same . ib. 

When the Second Verb is 



CONTENTS. 



XV 



Page 
put in the Imperfect of the 
Subjunctive . . . 487 

Observation on the Preterit 
Indefinite . . # . 488 

Elegant use of the Subjunc- 
tive .... 489 

Observations on the Relative 
Pronouns qui, que, quel, 
dont, and ou . . ib. 

Further Observations on the 
Conditional and Subjunc- 
tive . . . .490 

Relations between the Ten- 
ses of the different Moods ; 
of the Indicative; Stan- 
dard of the same . 491 

to the Conditional 

and of the Conditional . 492 
of the Present of the 



Indicative to the Tenses 
of its own Mood and the 
Conditional . . ib. 

Observation on Negative 
Sentences . . . 493 

Relations to the Conditional ib. 

to the Subjunctive 494 

Of the Infinitive . . 495 

Remarks respecting the Pre- 
positions to and en . . ib. 

Rule respecting the Parti- 
ciple Present . . ib. 

Observations on the Parti- 
ciples .... 496 

CHAPTER VI. 

Of the Prepositions a, de, 
and en ; their different 
functions . . . 497 

Distinction between the Ad- 
verb and the Preposition 498 

CHAPTER VII. 

Of the Adverb ; of the Ne- 
gation Ne 499 

Questions examined by the 
French Academy . ib. 

Answer to the First Ques- 



tion ; on the place of the 
Negatives 

• Second; when 



pas should be used in pre- 
ference to point . 

Third; when 



may both be omitted 

• Fourth ; when 



Page 
ib. 

500 

501 

ib. 

502 
503 

505 

506 

ib. 

507 



both ought to be omitted 
Observations on two Nega- 
tives .... 
When pas may be preserved 
The verb Savoir used for 

Pouvoir . . 
Remarks on Plus an&Davan- 

tage .... 
Observation on Autant and 
Aussi .... 
on a la and en 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Of Grammatical Construc- 
tion . . . t . 508 
Remarks on Interrogative 

Sentences . . . ib. 

Observation on Ditto . 509 

General Remarks on Sen- 
tences . . . 510 
How a Sentence may be 

compound . . .511 
Rule respecting Prepo- 
sitions . . . ib. 
Definition of Periods . ib. 
Of Inversion . . 512 
Observation on Inversion 513 
Of the Ellipsis . . ib. 
Of the Pleonasm . . 514 
Observation on Pleonasms 515 
Of the Syllepsis . . ib. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Of Grammatical Discor- 
dances .... 516 

Remarks on Disagreements 
and some Examples . ib. 

Of Amphibologies . . 517 



XVI 



CONTENTS. 



Page 

Examples of Amphibologies 
of the first kind . . 518 

Of the Second Kind . . ib. 

Third Kind . ib. 

Fourth Kind . . 519 

Of Gallicisms . . ib. 

General Principle of Galli- 
cisms . . . . ib 

Free Exercises : 

1. Madame de Maintenon 

to her Brother . . 522 

2. The Convert, a Tale 523 

3. The Good Minister 524 

4. The Magnificent Pros- 
pect . . . 525 

5. A General View of 
Nature . . . ib. 

6. Another General View 

of Nature . . 526 

7. Cultivated Nature . 527 

8. The same Subject con- 
tinued . . . 528 

9. Invocation to the God 

of Nature . . . ib. 

10. Sweets of an Innocent 
Life . . . 529 

11. Thoughts on Poetry . 530 

12. The Same Subject con- 
tinued . . . ib 



13. The Same Subject con- 
tinued 

14. Poetical Exercise . 
Models of Phrases on 

some Difficulties in the 
French Language : 

1. Phrases in which the 
Article is used 

2. The same continued 

3. Phrases in which the 
Article is omitted 

4. Continuation of the 
Same Sentences . 

5. Ditto 

6. Phrases upon the Pro- 
noun Le . 

7. upon the Dif- 
ferent Rules of the Par- 
ticiple Past 

upon the prin- 
cipal Relations of 
Words and Tenses 

Continuation of the 
same Phrases . 

upon the Nega- 



Page 

531 
532 



8, 



10. 
11. 



tive iVe 

Continuation 

same Phrases 



of the 



534 
535 



53G 
537 

538 



539 

540 
541 

542 
543 



FRENCH PRONUNCIATION, 



INTRODUCTION TO THE LEXICOLOGY, 



THE FIRST PART Or THIS GRAMMAR. 



GRAMMAR 



Is the art of speaking and writing correctly. 

To speak, is to manifest externally, by certain 
signs, the thoughts which are combined internally 
in the mind. The signs made use of for writing 
are called Letters, and a collection of these, in a 
proper order, is known under the denomination of 
Alphabet. — (Dumarsais, Encycl. Meth. at the word 
Alphabet.) 

As we have no Alphabet of our own, we have 
been obliged to adopt that of the Romans, which 
had but twenty letters, as will be observed in the 
next page. 



INTRODUCTION TO THE 



FRENCH ALPHABET. 



Roman Letters. 


Pronounced. 


Modern Pronunciation. 


A 


a 


ah 


(1) 


B 


b 


bay 


be 


C 


c 


sat/ 


ce 


D 


d 


day 


dc 


E 


e 


a 


e (2) 


F 


f 


«ff 




G 


g 


j«!/f 




H 


h 


hash 


ft (3) 


I 


i 


e 




J 


J 


jeef 




K 


k* 


kah 




L 


1 


ell 




M 


m 


emm 




N 


B 


enn 




O 


O 







P 


P 


pay 




Q 


q* 


qui 


fte 


R 


r 


air 




S 


s 


ess 




T 


t 


tay 




U 


u 


u% 




V 


v * 


vay 




X 


X* 


eeks 


kse 


Y 


y* 


e grec 




Z 


z 


zed. 





(1) In the natural way of pronouncing the alphabetic letters, a mute e must be 
added after each consonant, and sounded very short, viz. : 6eis sounded as in the 
English word before ; ce as in cellar ; de as in debate, and so on. 

(2) e, as mute is scarcely sounded. 

(3) h, its natural sound is aspirated as in the English language, and when mute, 
it is counted for nothing in the pronunciation. 



* Tc, q, v, x, y, do not belong to the Roman alphabet ; h in French is for c harsh 
sound, as in ca, co, cu, pronounced ka, ko, ku. q gives the same sound; v has 
nearly the sound of the /; x is used for gz, cs, and sometimes for ss ; y like A is a 
Greek letter, often used in French instead of ii, as pays, paiis ; moyen, moiien. — 
(Dumarsais.) 

t The two consonants g and j are sounded like s in pleasure, or z in azure. 

% u and q are the only letters which have no similar English sound, they must 
be heard from the lips of a native. 



FRENCH SOUNDS. O 

OBSERVATIONS 

ON THE FRENCH ALPHABET. 

The French Alphabet contains twenty-five letters, 
which are divided into voivels and consonants. 

A vowel is the simple emission of the voice, forming 
an articulate sound by itself. 

A consonant i on the contrary, cannot be articu- 
lated without the assistance of & vowel. (These two 
last observations with regard to the vowels and 
consonants, are general to any living language.) 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, w, and y, which some- 
times has the sound of one i, and sometimes of two. 

The nineteen remaining letters, b, c, d, f g, h, j, 
k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z, are consonants. 

OF ACCENTUATION. 

Independently of the natural or primitive sounds 
of the five vowels, a, e, i, o, u, there are others pro- 
duced by means of the accents placed upon the 
vowels, 

There are three accents, the acute (') never placed 
but on e, as in bonte, goodness ; the grave ( v ) placed 
over a, e, u 9 as in voila, behold; proces, laivsidt ; ou, 
where ; the circumflex Q employed over any /o?^ 
vowel, as platre, plaster; reve, dream; epitre, 
epistle; apotre, apostle ; buche, log of wood. 

The acute accent, which runs from right to left, 
gives a sharp sound to the vowel, and must be pro- 
nounced with the mouth almost closed. 

The gram, on the contrary, formed from left to 
right, gives a broad sound, obtained by disclosing 
the teeth, and dwelling on the vowel. 



4 FRENCH SOUNDS. 

The circumflex, which is the combination of the 
. grave and the acute, is pronounced very near as the 
grave, with this difference, that it requires more 
time to pronounce the vowel than with the grave. 

Due attention should be paid by the learner to 
the above accents, which not only change the sounds 
of the vowels, but sometimes the meaning of the 
words : for instance, peche, a peach ; peehe, a sin ; 
la, the-, la, there ; ou, or; on, where; du, of the; 
du, owed, participle past of to owe. 

EXAMPLES OF LONG AND SHOET VOWELS. 

a is long in pate, dough, and short in patte, paw. 

e — tempete, storm, — trompette, trumpet. 

i — gite, abode, — petite, little. 

o — hote, host, — hotte, wicker basket. 

u — flute, flute, — dispute, dispute. 

FRENCH SOUNDS. 

The following French simple sounds may be 
divided in three classes. In the first they are pro- 
duced by the five vowels, a, e, i, o, u, with no other 
assistance but their respective accents. 

In the second class, the simple sounds are obtained 
by the combination of the vowels eu, on. 

In the third, the simple sounds, which are also 
called nasal, owing to their being produced a little 
through the nose, are formed by the coalition of m 
or n with each of the vowels, as am, em, en ; im, in ; 
om 9 on ; um, un. 



FRENCH SOUNDS. 

CLASS I. 
Alone. 



Sounds, 


Examples. 


Sounded as 


1. a short 




ami, friend 


a in amateur 


2. a long 




pate, dough 


a — bark 


3. e mute 




tenir, to hold 


e — battery 


4. e sharp 




ete, summer 


e — eh ! 


b. e broad 




modele, model 


ail or ale 


n a fbroad and! 
6 - e (long(l)} 


tete, head 


e — there 


7. i short 




imiter, to imitate 


i — timid 


8. i long 




gite, abode 


i — field 


9. o short 




ecole, school 


o — scholar 


10. 6 long 




cote, rib 


o — note 


11. u short (2) 




dispute, dispute 




12. u long 




flute, flute 





(1) e is generally unsounded at the end of many words, as in the above, modele, 
tete, ecole, cote, which are pronounced the same as if they were written model, 
tet, ecol, cot : the same must be observed sometimes in the beginning and middle 
of certain words, as in cependant, javeline, empereur, commandement, &c, pro- 
nounced cpendan, javlin, &c. 

(2) u is always short at the end of words, as vertu, bu, connu, &c, and after the 
consonants q and g it is generally silent, as in quatre, guerre, &c, pronounced 
qatre, gerre, (katre, kere or care.) 

CLASS II. 

Combined. 



Combinations. 


Examples. 


Sounded as 


V 1 eu short 
2 /; eu long 
3" ou short 
4 /; ou long 


jeune, young 
je&ne, fast 
soupe, soup 
voilte, vault 


u in shun 
ou — soup 



CLASS III. 

JVasaL 



Combinations. 


Examples. 


Sounded as 


V'i an 


ange, angel 




encore 


2"' am 


ambition, ambition 




ditto 


3" f em 


emploi, employment 




ditto 


A'" en 


endroit, place 




ditto 


5"' in 


Un, flax 


en in length 


6" on 


long, long 


on 


— long 


r 4 ,n un 


brun, brown 


un 


— 



FRENCH SOUNDS. 



Additional combined simple sounds belonging to the 
three foregoing classes ; they affect chiefly the 
beginning and the end of words. 



Combinations. 



4. < 



' ea 
i ai 

eai 
I ee 

oe 



raie 
5. e<jei 
loie 



9 



°{ 



au 
eo 
au 
eau 



>"eu| 



ceu 
oeu 
eue 



t Examples. 


English sound. 


il songea, he thought 


sonshar 


aigu, sharp 
geaijay 
annee, year 

oesophage, oesophagus 
baie, bay 
baleine, whale 


ague 

shay (sharp) 

arnay (sharp) 

be (open) 
barlen (open) 


monnoie, money 


mond (open) 


aurore, dawn 




flageolet, flageolet 
auteur, author 


fiasholay (rather soft) 

dtour 


marteati, hammer 


marrto 


eau, water 


& 


seeur, sister 


sir (Irish sound) 


noeud, knot 


neil 


queue, tail 


keH 



ie at the end of the words is sounded like bee in vie, life, amie, female friend. 

oue, the mute e in this combination at the end of words is almost unsounded, 
as in joue, cheek, iljoue, he plays, and ou has the sound of ou short, 3" second 
class. 

ao is sounded as o in some, in aoriste, pronounced oriste»an6 as o in throne, in 
Saone, a river, pronounced Sane. * 

aou is sounded as oo in mood, in Aout, August, aouteron, a reaper, pronounced 
out (dropping the t) and oirteron ; but aouter has the sound of a short, and is pro- 
nounced a-oiiU. 



FRENCH SOUNDS. 



The following coalition of letters belongs to the 
third class, the nasal sounds. 



Combinations. 


Examples. 


English sound. 


2'" am 


jambe, leg 


shanb (soft) 


]'". ean 


affligeant, afflicting 


afflishan 


S'". em 


membre, member 


membre 


4!'K en 


entendre, to hear 


antandre 


aim 


f essaim, swarm, faim,~\ 
\ hunger J 


essin, fin 




ain 


crainte, fear 


hrint 


Kill in, 


ein 


peinture, picture 


pinture 


9 ' in \ im 


imp oli, impolite 


inpoli (short) 


ym 


symbole, symbol 


sainbol 


^yn 


syntaxe, syntax 


{pishon (sh sounded 
I like z in azure 


ain \ eon 

o"', on < 


pigeon, pigeon 


Corn 


ombre, shadow 


onber 


feun 


a jeun, fasting 


it shun (soft as above) 


7'". un 


\um 


parfum, perfume 


parefun 



Caen, a town of Normandy; Laon, a town of Vile de France; faon, a fawn: and 
paon, a peacock, are pronounced as follows: Kan, Lan, fan, pan, the nasal an 
being sounded like an or en, 4'" third class. 

Taon, ox-fly, is pronounced the same as above (tan). 



FURTHER ADDITIONAL FRENCH 
EXEMPLIFIED. 



SOUNDS 



Ai in raidir, to stiffen, has the sound of an e open, 
short, redir, likewise in the word faible, weak, 
which is pronounced feble, and in the third person 
singular of the imperfect indicative and the condi- 
tional, as il lisait, he did read ; il lirait, he would 
read. 

But ai has the sound of an e open, long and broad : 
First, in the other persons of the imperfect and 



8 EXCEPTIONS TO THE 

the conditional ; je lisais, I was reading ; ils lisaient, 
they tvere reading: je lirais, I would or should read; 
ils liraient, they would or should read. This obser- 
vation is very useful to foreigners, in order that they 
might perceive the difference of the sounds in the 
conditional and the future : example, future, je lirai 
(e open-short, lire) ; conditional, je lirais (e open- 
long lire), &c. 

Secondly, in the final aitre belonging to words 
which have more than two syllables, as paraitre and 
its compounds. 

Thirdly, in the names of nations frequently spoken 
of, as Frangais, Anglais, &c. 

Moeurs, manners, which substantive has no sin- 
gular number, is always sounded hard, as in the 
English wT>rd hearse-, demangeaison, itch, is pro- 
nounced demanshezon, an and on are nasal. 

In Seigneur, lord, ei is sounded like e in let ; gn 
like gn in poignant, and eur like ir in sir. 

Monsieur, sir, is pronounced mosieur, the n is 
not sounded. 

Pays, country ; paysan, peasant ; abbaye, an 
abbey ; pa is pronounced^, y sounds like ye in eye, 
with the addition of i short befdfre the nasal sound 
san ; payei, payeisan, abbayei. 



GENERAL EXCEPTIONS OF THE NASAL SOUND. 

Am, an, are not nasal when m or n are doubled, 
as in constamment, annuaire. Am loses also its 
nasal sound at the end of some proper names, except 
Adam, which is pronounced Adan. 

Em and en are sounded as in the English words 
hem and men : 

1. In some words taken from foreign languages : 



FRENCH SOUNDS 9 

Jerusalem, item, hymen, Solen, amen, &c, and also 
in decemvirat, decemvirs. 

2. When double, as queje vienne, que tu soutiennes, 
quil compremie, and in the feminine pronouns, la 
mienne, la tienne, les siennes, and in many other 
words, as antienne, magicienne, Vienne en Autriche 
&c. 

3. When followed immediately by a mute e, as in 
arene, ebene,je me promene, ilegrene, it seme, &c. 

Em in femme, woman, and en in enorgueillir, 
ennoblir, and ennui, must be pronounced as if spelt 
with a, femme, anorgueillir, annoblir, &c, and ten 
in the second syllable of so-len-nel and derivatives, 
sounds like «in la, article feminine, the. 

Em keeps generally its nasal sound in adverbs 
ending in emment, as, differemment, constamment, 
eminemment. Sec. 

iV in the monosyllables mon, ton, son, bon, &c, 
ceases to be nasal when immediately followed by a 
vowel or an h mute, as mon ami est un bon homme, 
my friend is a simpleton, pronounced mo nami est 
un ho nomme. 

*#* The adjective bon placed before the substan- 
tive conveys the idea of silliness, and after it, that 
of goodness, as un homme bon, a good man. 

Im and in are not nasal : * 

First. In the word interim, and in proper names 
taken from foreign languages, as Selim, Ephra'im, 
Ibrahim, &c. ; however, the nasal sound is preserved 
in Benjamin, Joachim. 

Secondly. When m or n is followed by a vowel or 
an h mute, as inanime, inimaginable, unanimite, 
xnhumain, &£. 

Thirdly. Whenever m or n is doubled, as in im- 
moler, innover, immediatement, inne 9 innocent, &c. 

* See examples in the Supplementary Part of this Grammar. 

b2 



10 FRENCH DIPHTHONGS 

Um is pronounced omm in some words taken from 
the Latin, as centumvirs, album, quinquennium, 
laudanum, geranium. 

U after the consonants q and g is generally silent, 
as in quatre, four ; guerre, war ; pronounced katre, 
gayre, gue sounded like g in gay. 

U preserves the sound of u short, when followed 
by a mute e, or connected with the following words : 
as, line, unihne, nn liomme, un esprit. 

* % * Ien preserves the nasal sound in words ending 
in ent or ence, and their derivatives, as patient, 
patience, patienter, pronounced pacian, paciance, 
pacianter. 



A TABLE OF FRENCH DIPHTHONGS. 

The combinations of vowels already mentioned, 
form only indivisible and simple sounds ; but there 
are others that give the sound of two vowels at one 
and the same time, and by a single impulse of the 
voice ; these are properly called diphthongs, from 
the Greek Sifydoyyog ; cig, twice, tidoyyog, sound ; as 
they are all formed from the simple sounds of the 
first, second, and third classes, they are called 
compound sounds. 



FROM DIPHTHONGS. 



Jl 



& 



^ 

$ 






.^ 



So g 

o 









.2 TJ 



•5 " 

CD 03 

TJ C<3 . 

-f 5 S o 
2 



&, . 

CO CO 



h *-3 



t3 

Is-* . 

C+-I .CO 

cd 

CO V 

<- 5 



O co 

O ciO co 



£h ^ 



cu • 

? - « O 

2 ^->.£~ 

£ § 3 -3 t • 

cs cd „ w.^ g 



re o> 

• CO 



J 8S 5, S 



CO 



5 « 



3 -g 



*^ 



S J = 



§3« 

CT CD 









3 



CD 

> 






C e o a c s 8 ~ s o S- H 8 



& 
&• 



^ c5 

8 ^^ 

-^ CD 




.2.2-2 .2 9 V U I ua I.S 5 

Approximative similar English sounds of the above diphthongs. 

1. Deardem, open; dear man, nasal. 2. dearbl; galematea, gal is sounded like 
#a£ in gallic. 3, neass; the sound of^'W in vieille is pretty near the same as that 
of t7£ in brilliant, only instead of z7Z pronounce aeill. 4, etudie, open. 5, konfeee, 
kon is nasal. 6, fi as fi in fig and tne»£ as e broad and long ; neee. 8, Konfussius, 
Fabius, proper names, kon nasal, fa as fa in famine, s final is sounded. 9, mosseeu, 
n and r are not to be sounded. 10, veeu, eu as ir in sir ; luksureeu. 11, naygoseean, 
konfeean ; #0 as go in to go, an is nasal. 12, joras is sounded like lion, nasal sound 
without the *. 13, leein, teein, reein, in nasal. 14, minteein, cleean, souieein t 
passeean, in and an nasal, t final unsounded. 



12 



FRENCH SOUNDS. 



^ 

£ 






S3 







English Sounds of the above. 

1, oui as the French affirmative oui, yes, pronounced wee, se as ze , the s be- 
tween two vowels in French has generally the sound of a z ; rayshueessan, an 
nasal ; ebleweessant, blew sounded like blue, an is nasal, and t is sounded on 
account of the feminine gender. 2, cran shwher, g as in fig, an nasal, d unsounded, 
j as ss in assure, eur like her without breathing out the h. 3, shmin, nasal ; bou 



FROM DIPHTHONGS. 13 

as bu in bullock, eux, long, x unsounded. 4, anrwe, sharp, en nasal; trewe. 5, 
shwai/t sway, Iway, the ay is sharp. 6, creway, open, mwale, open, pwdysson. 
nasal. 7, Iway, long and open ; shwdy, sh as z in azure. 8, rooar, swar, long and 
open. 9, shooar, long and open, the final ■? and 2 are mute: in in cr/?rais nasal. 
10, rooash. soft. 11, shoo-on, sh soft, cm nasal, looon, nasal. 12, shooshoo, sh 
very soft; babooin, nasal. 13, coyn, nasal, dans, sans nasal, 5 mute, sooin, nasal, 
bzooin nasal. 14, shoo-an, Roo-an, nasal. 



Observations. — oi in loi, law, voix, voice, sounding 
as iva in was, keeps this sound, firstly, in monosyl- 
lables, as moi, me, bois, wood ; and in the verbs of 
two syllables ending in oire, or oitre, as croire, to 
believe, cr oitre, to grow. Secondly in polysyllables 
ending in oi, oie, oir, oire, and eoire, as emploi, em- 
ployment, courroie, latchet, vouloir, to be willing, 
observatoire, observatory, nageoire (nashooar) the fin. 
Thirdly, in oi, oy, followed by a vowel, as ondoie- 
ment (ondooaymen, on nasal, ay open), a private 
christening ; royal, roy-al. Fourthly, in the middle 
of words, as poison, poison, courtoisie, courteousness. 
In the names of nations seldom mentioned, Danois. 
Iroquois, Gallois. 



14 



FRENCH SOUNDS 



o 
> 



P 

H 

s 

o 



* 






12 
. o 





<L> 


"H~ > 


cJ 


rP 


c ^ 


bo 




»— 1 ** ••* 










Q 


CD ."tn ^ 


be 












nj 


r^ 


r^-e ° 


' ' 


O 




,0 
g 


bo 


J1 o ^ 








r - 


^ 


£^2 


£ 


o 


o •- > 




*c 


t * o 


cu 




S^* 






i.§fe 



o mh ••-- r— i cu 

^2 f-( rv, 

bo en c ip 

-c 5 cu * 



■si 4 s 






X 






p & 

a, ;p 
CD CO 
P pi4 






~r5 



•13 ^ 1 

05 . V .?5 tS> 



3 v • § 



s^ 



bo.§K3 



CD 



kqSjcQ 



B.Br 

























*P 


'sf 


CU 














^ 










on 


CU 


rP 
















bo 












<M 














cu 










"3 


3 




■^3 












o 


3 








£ 


bo 






<P 










p 


.2 


p 


o 





P 


S 


CU 


CU 


sCU 


cu 


<Qi 


S3 


<ofl 


O 


S3 


> 




o 


«S 


H3 


1 1 


I 


| 


\ 


| 


1 


| 


| 


I 








c5 




















+j 


'■e t3 




P 


-' = 


"" 


'-' 


"" 


- J 


" - 


p 


p 


~ 


P 

CU 


p 





•™- \I3 -C u 



ca ^ C <S ?S « 



FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 15 

OF CONSONANTS. 

B, which has the same sound as in English, is 
always sounded in the middle of words, as in ab- 
diquer, sub-ve-nir, ob-vi-er, &c, and at the end of 
foreign proper names, as Job, Caleb (kaleb), Moab ; 
also at the end of the words, radoub, the refitting of 
a ship, rumb, point of the compass, but it is silent 
in plomb, lead. 

When double, as in abbe and its derivatives, one 
b only is sounded. 

C has three general distinctive sounds, k, s (hard 
sound), g, sounding as in to go. 

First. Of k before a, o, u, when there is no cedilla 
under the g, as comble, cachet, curieux, coquette, 
coucou, recompense-, pronounced komble, &c. 

Second. Of s (hard sound) before e, i, as in cire, 
citron, cerveau, &c. ; also before a, o, u, when with 
a cedilla under the g, as repi, facon, facade, &c. 

Third. Of g hard in second and its derivatives. 

C has the sound of k in the middle of words before 
q, ca, co, cu, cl, cr, as socque, acquerir, accabler, ac- 
climater, acclamation, accomplir, accoutrer, accre- 
ditee* , ecclesiastique, &c, which are pronounced sok, 
akerir, akabler, &c. ; succes, acces, accident, vaccine, 
&c, are pronounced suk-ces, ak-ces, ak-cident, 
vak-cine. The words peccavi and peccadille are 
now pronounced by some, pekavi, pekadil. — (Noel 
and ChapsaL) 

The same sound k is usually heard at the end of 
the following words, as in cognac, lac, a lake, avec, 
bee, pic, syndic, roc, froc, estoc, due, aqueduc, arc, 
agaric, zinc, &c, and in the singular of echec, 

Likewise in croc-en-jambe, franc etourdi, du blanc 
ait noir, and in both syllables of mic-mac, tric-trac, 
cric-crac, ric-a-ric, bric-a-brac, and pore-epic; but c 
is silent in croc, ac-croc arc-boutant, banc, broc, 



16 



FRENCH SOUNDS, 



clerCj marc d argent, eric, estomac,flanc, jonc, lacs, 
toils, tabac, tronc, echecs, almanack, nor in done 
before a consonant. 

Observations. — In words ending in ct, both con- 
sonants are generally sounded, as in tact, contact, 
intact, exact, inexact, abject, correct, direct, infect, 
strict , succinct ; but neither of them is sounded in 
instinct, amict, aspect, suspect, circonspect, respect, 
this last word sounds like k before a vowel, or an h 
mute, as respect aux superieurs, respect humain, 
pronounce respet kaux superieurs, respet- kumain. 

JBecteur, seducteur, redacteur, humecter, injecter, 

dactyle, ductile, &c, are pronounced rekteur, seduk- 

teur, &c. 

( one, the most frequent, like sh 

^j t -j S in she or shake, 

Ln has two sounds< xl 4 , * . ,' , , 

i the other, which very seldom 

f occurs, like k or ch in chimera. 



First sound as sh 



Chat, 

Che-val, 

Cher-cher, 

Chiche, 

Ar-chi-tecte, 



eat 
horse 
to seek 
stingy 
architect 



ar-chi-trave, architrave 
chou-et-te, screech-owl 

chute, fall 

chu-cho-ter, to whisper. 
&c, &c. 



Second sound of ch as k in the following words 



An-a-cho-rete Cha-na-an 

Arch-ange Chal-da-ique 

Ar-chon-tes Chal-dee 
Ar-chi-e-pis-co- Cha-os 

pal chal-co-gra-phie 

Eu-cha-ris-tie ca-te-chu-me-ne 

cha-las- tique chro-no-lo-gie 



chi-ro-man-cie A-rach-ne 



chceur 

cho-le-ra 

cho-ris-te 

or-ches-tre 

cho-re-ge 

scho-li-e 



scho-las- tique 
chro-nique 
tech-niqiie 
cher-so-ne-se 
chro- no-metre 
&c, &c. 



Observations on the first and second sound of CH. 

This first sound is to be observed in monosyllables 
and words of two or three syllables beginning by 



FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 17 

cha, che, chi, cho, chu, and also in the middle of 
some of the polysyllables, as charlatan, chicorte, &c, 
cociienillier, Cochin-Chine, cochonnerie, &c, except 
chu, which seems to have the first above-named 
sound only at the beginning and the end of words, 
as echu, dechu, parachute, fichu, &c. 

But ch has the second sound when it is follow ed by 
/, n, or r, (seldom with n) a, o, u, in words taken from 
the Hebrew or Greek, especially in proper names, 
as Achab, Nabuchodonosor, Anacharsis, &c, and e, 
e, i, in several words likewise borrowed from foreign 
languages, as Michel Ange, Machiavel, archetype, 
Civita Vecchia, Achelous, chiliade, &c, but in this 
last case there are so many exceptions that we must 
refer the learner to practice alone ; for we pronounce 
soft, asin the first sound Zachee, Joachim, archeveque, 
archipretre, archidiacre, &c, and some even pro- 
nounce Machiavel, Mashiavel instead of Makiavel. 

Yacht "I ("Yak 

U-trecht > are pronounced < U-trek 
Maes-trich J (^Ma-estrik 

Ch takes the sound of hard g in drachme, dragme, 
ancient Greek coin, and is dropped in almanack, 
aim ana. 

D, has the same sound as in English : 

First, in the middle of words, as adjectif adverbe, 
admirable. 

Second, at the end of proper names, as in David, 
Obed, Gad, Alfred, &c, and in some other words of 
one or two syllables, as Cid, Sud, Sund, Talmud, 
ephod. 

Third. Generally at the end of words before a 
vowel or h mute, d takes the sound of /, as quand il 
viendra; un grand homme\ vend-ill &c, pronounced 
quan-til, gran-tomme, ven-til ; but d is silent in 
bond, gond, fond, nid, nosud, muid, and pied, except 
in de fond en comble, de pied en cap, tenir pied-a- 



18 FRENCH SOUNDS, 

boule, avoir un pied a terre, where d final is sounded 
as t. 

D is sounded double in some few words derived 
from the Latin, as in ad-dition, ad-duct eur, red- 
dition. 

F\& sounded in French as in English. 

The final / is generally sounded as well before 
words which begin with a consonant, as before those 
which begin with a vowel, as soif brulante and soif 
ardente; vif desir and vif -amour ; but it is silent in 
clef, cerf cerf-volant, chef-d'oeuvre, which words 
must be pronounced as follows : cle, cer, cer-volant, 
che-d'ceuvre. It is sounded in serf slave, and in 
the singular number of the following words : oeuf 
nerf bceuf but it is silent in the plural, and pro- 
nounced oeu, ner, bceu ; however, the dropping of 
the / in the pronunciation of the above three words 
takes place sometimes in the singular when they are 
accompanied by a modificative adjective, as un ceuf 
dur, un oeu dur ; un nerf delicat, un ner delica ; un 
hoeuf sale, un boeu sale, but/ is sounded in bceuf 
a la mode. 

Flms the sound of v in the numerical word neuf 
nine, before a vowel or h mute, as il y a neuf ans, 
neuf hommes, pronounced neuv ans, neuv hommes ; 
but it is sounded in neuf de coeur, de carreau, de 
pique, de trefle (at cards), and in the adjective neuf, 
new, both in the singular and plural number, as un 
habit neuf, des habits neufs. 

When /is doubled, one only is sounded, however, 
in some few words, as effusion^ effectivement, effica- 
cite, &c, it seems more proper to sound both. 

rbefore a, o, u, the hard sound of g in the 

G has 5 En g lish word go ; 

" )and before e, i, y, the soft sound of 5 in 

v pleasure, or z in azure. 

The difference of the two above sounds is seen in 



FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 19 

the French word gage, pledge, or in the English 
for reine-claude, greengage, pronounced rene-glode*. 

Examples of g hard. 

garcon gangre-ne gom-me 

go-guenard (joker) j guttural gustation 

Examples of g soft. 

gens genre gingembre gymnastique 

Final g has the hard sound mjoug and in foreign 
proper names, as Agag, Doeg, but it takes generally 
the sound of k before a vowel or h mute, as un sang 
aduste, un long hiver, pronounced un sank aduste, 
un lonk hiver; un rang illustre, is also pronounced 
un rank illustre ; but at the end of some words, g 
is not sounded even before a vowel, as in etang, 
faubourg, Luxembourg ; it is equally silent in doigt, 
legs, poing, oing, hareng, seing, vingt, twenty, and 
in the following compound words : Hour g-V abbe, 
Bourg-la-reine, sang-sue, de sangfroid. Bourg, a 
small town of France, and bourg-mestre, burgo- 
master, are pronounced hourk, lourk-mestre ; but g 
is silent in bourg, meaning a large village-market. 

Observations. — In gui, the ui forms a diphthong 
in aiguille and its derivatives, as well as in aiguiser 
and its derivatives ; but not in anguille, an eel, gui, 
guider, guise, &c, in which gu is sounded as gi in 
gig or gilh 

Glace, ice, gloire, glory, are sounded the same as 
if they were spelt guelace, gueloire, hard sound. 

Guadalquivir, Guadeloupe, lingual, and some few 
others are sounded as rva in was, kwadaikevir, 
kwadloup, linkwal. 

When doubled, only one is pronounced, except 

* Claude, a proper name, and secret, are pronounced klode and cekre. — (Acad ) 



20 FRENCH SOUNDS. 

before ge, as in suggerer, suggestion, pronounced 
cug-jerer, cug-jestion. 

rone hard, as in the English 

~ , ' ,3 word ignorant 

Gn has two sounds < d the * her jj^d, ag j Q the 

v last syllable of onion. 
Examples of the hard sound. 

gnome gnostique cognation 

agnus ignee stagnant 



Examples of the liquid sound. 



agncau 

digne 

regne 



Bourgogne 

ignorant 

compagne 



cigogne 

magnifique 

campagne 



Observation. — That generally speaking, the hard 
sound is more frequent at the beginning of words 
than in the middle, where the liquid sound seems 
to prevail ; however, this last observation, which is 
to be found in the first edition of Levizac, is liable 
to a great many exceptions, learnt only by practice. 

G is silent in signet, of a book, and Itegnard, a 
French poet, pronounced sinet, renard.* 

H as in English, is sometimes aspirated and more 
frequently mute ; for example : it is aspirated in 
le heros, and mute in Therdisme.-\ 

When h is immediately preceded by a p in the 
words derived from Greek or Hebrew, these two 
letters united together, are sounded as an /, for 
instance in the following words : seraphin, Japhet, 
Philippe, Phalaris, P liar sale, physique, philosophie, 
sphinx, &c. 

* geo in geolage, geole, geolier, geoliere, Georges, is pronounced jo as jolage, jole, 
jolier, joliere, Jorges. 

t As no fixed rule can be given on the sound of the letter h, either aspirated or 
mute, we refer the learner to the dictionaries where it is generally marked. 



FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 21 

Observations. — His never aspirated in the middle 
of a word, as in Mahometan, Bohemien, bohon- 
hupas, except when that word is the compound of 
another beginning with an h aspirated, as in s'a- 
heurter, deharnacher, enhamacher, senhardir, &c. 
However, h is silent in exhausser, exhaussement. — 
{Acad.) 

H after r or t, is always silent, as rheteur, Shone, 
rhubarhe, the, Thamise, Thomas, thym, &c. ; but it 
is generally aspirated in the names of towns or 
countries, as la Haye, le Havre, le Hanovre, &c. 

J has always the sound of z in azure, or s in 
pleasure, as jus, jamais, jovial, joujou, jujuhe, jeu- 
nesse. 

K is constantly sounded as in the English word 
king. This letter occurs but very seldom in the 
French language. 

L when double and preceded by ai, ei, oui, has 
the liquid sound, as in the English words brilliant, 
William, seraglio. 

EXAMPLES. 



travailler 


veiUer 


grenouiUe 


maille 


recueillir 


patrouille 


baffler 


fouilltr 





The same liquid pronunciation takes place in some 
few words where the double I is preceded only by 
an i, asjille, guenille, quille, hriller, &c. 

It has again the same sound in words ending in 
ail, eil, ueil, and ouil, with one / only, as in travail, 
reveil, cercueil, oeil, fenouil, and in some others 
which end in il, as mil (in the signification of mil- 
let,) a seed. 

Observations. — In some words, as sourcil, outil, 
chenil, haril, gentil, the letter I is unsounded, and 
they are pronounced the same as if they were spelt 
outi, cheni, sourci, bari, genti ; but I is always 



22 FRENCH SOUNDS 

sounded in til and peri/, and in the plural, the s is 
silent, as well as in /lis, a son, in which word the / 
is also omitted in the pronunciation; but in Jil, 
thread, it is always heard, except also the s, which 
in the plural is equally silent. The same remark 
applies to poil, pronounced poel, the hair of an 
animal, and to il, Us, personal pronoun, w r here the 
s is silent when the next word does not begin with 
a vowel, or an h mute. 

/// in the middle of words is generally liquid, and 
the few^ exceptions to this rule are ordinarily met 
with in words derived from the Latin, as distiller, 
distillare, osciller, oscillare, scintiller, scintillare, &c. 
The same observation may be applied to words 
beginning with ill as illusive, illustris, e, illuminer, 
ilhiminare, &c. 

It may be observed that whenever a French word 
comes from the Latin, the double / is distinctly 
pronounced, but never with the liquid sound. 

Gentilhomme, a gentleman, is pronounced with 
the liquid sound, jantilliome, and in the plural gen- 
tilshommes is sounded gentizome. 

M. When the letter m is at the end of a word, 
it has but the nasal sound, (see p. 5); therefore, 
nom, parfum, /aim, are pronounced the same as if 
they were spelt non, parfun, fain; but in most 
foreign proper names, as Abraham, Jerusalem, 
Stockholm, Amsterdam, &c , the m is sounded as if 
it w^ere followed by a mute e. Again, the letter m 
sounds like n in the middle of a word before h, p, 
or ft, thus are pronounced embleme,emploi, embarras, 
empire, impatience, comparaison, condamner, as if 
they were spelt with the nasal sound, anbleme, an- 
ploi, a^barras, rmpire, ???pacience, condazmer ; 
except, however, some words, as amnistie, Memnon, 
somnifere, &c, which are derived from dead Ian- 



FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 



23 



guages*. When m is double in compound words, 
as emmener, emmailloter, the first syllable is pro- 
nounced like the nasal particle a?i, anmener, amnail- 
loter ; except this case, m keeps its primitive pro- 
nunciation, as in immortel, immediatement, commi- 
natoire, &c. Femme, woman, is sounded fa-me. — 
(See pp. 8 and 9.) 

A r final has often the nasal sound (see pp. 5, 8, 
and 9.) Beam is pronounced bear. 

Nt final in the third person plural of any French 
verb, are constantly silent, except t, which is sounded 
only before a vowel or h mute, as Us aiment a rire, 
Us lurent line page. Us vivaient honor ahlement. 

When n is double, one only is generally pro- 
nounced, except in annitaire, annal, annaliste, armi- 
hiler, annate, inne, innove, innovation, and a few 
others. 

P followed by h (see page 20, letter h). 

P is generally sounded in the middle of words 
as in 



adapter 


baptismal 


Septuagesime 


adopter 


exception 


septuagenaire 


capter 


inepte 


symptome 


captieux 


Septembre 


rapsodie 


But it is silen 


t in 




bapteme 


sculpter 


sept 


baptiser 


sculpteur 


septieme 


baptistere 


sculpture 


temps 


Baptiste 


je romps 


printemps 


cheptel 


tu romps 


prompt 


exempt 


il romp 


prompte 


exempter 


il corromp 




and generally in 


i words when be' 


tween two conso 


nants. — (Acad.) 







* Automne is pronounced autone, and comte, a count, konte. 



24 



FRENCH SOUNDS 



Final p is always sounded in Alep^ cap, Gap, 

jalap, and julep, in trop, heaucoup, when before a 

vowel or h mute, but never in champ, camp, drap, 

loup, sirop, and galop, which are pronounced chan, 

kan, dra, &c. 

In laps, relaps, and rapt, both the final consonants 
are sounded, but p is silent in cep de vigne, pro- 
nounced ce de vigne. 

When p is double, only one is pronounced. 

Q generally sounds as k in king. 

[" that of k the most general, 
before a vowel ; 

Qi xl -, that of kou before a in some 

u has three sounds <; ,. i ^ 

j particular words ; 

that of kit before e or i in 

others. 



i 



EXAMPLES OF k. 



quai 
qualite 
quelque 
quiconque 



wharf 
quality 
some 
whatever 



quolibet 
quenouille 
question 
queue 



pun 
distaff 
question 
tail 



aquatique 

equateur 

equation 

quaere, quaker 

quadrature 

quadrige 



equestre 

liquefaction 

questeur 



EXAMPLES OF kou. 

quadrupede 
quadruple 
quaterne 
quadragenaire, 
man of forty 



EXAMPLES OF hi. 

questure 

quinquennium 

equilatere 



Qui?iquagesime, 

Shrove- Sun clay 
quadragesimal 
aquatile 
aquarelle 
inquarto 



equilateral 
equitation 
quintuple, Sfc. 



In cinq, five, q is mute before a consonant and 
sounds like k before a vowel, viz. : le cinq Avril 9 
pronounced le cin kavril. Liquefier is sounded 
likefie. — (Noel and Chapsal.) 



FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 26 

R. Very few foreigners give to the French r its 
proper sound. 

R keeps its natural sound in recevoir, Tester, in- 
teressant, &c, and it is pronounced as in the English 
word row. 

It is sounded like in air in the following words : 
driller, fier, mer, amer, belveder, cancer, enfer, ether, 
hier, hiver, fer, ver, pater. The same observation 
applies to foreign proper names ending in er. 

It is heard also in the words in eur, as tailleur, 
procureur, voleur, fournisseur, except in monsieur, 
which is pronounced mo-sieu. 

It is silent in the infinitives in er when they ter- 
minate the sense of a sentence or a part of it, or 
when the next word begins with a consonant, as 
parler, frapper, commander. Les jeunes ge?is 
aiment trop a parler ; Jaime mieux obeir que com- 
mander. 

R final before a vowel or h mute is generally 
sounded, as parler a un ami, frapper un fripon, 
finir un ouvrage, recevoir une lettre, &c. 

When double, one only is pronounced, except, 
first, in aberration, abhorrer, errer, erreur, terreur, 
and their derivatives. 

Secondly. In words beginning with irr, as irriter, 
irreconciliable, &c. 

Thirdly. In the future and conditional of the 
verbs acquerir, courir, mourir, and their derivatives 
f acquerrai, je mourrais, nous courrions, &c. 

In words ending in ers, ert, erd, art, ard, arts, 
ort, ord, ords, arts, r alone is sounded, as canard, 
renard, marts, pervers, &c. 

Observation. — R final is not sounded in the two 
following sentences : 

U est le premier a vous promettre, He is the first to promise, and the 
ct le dernier a vous tenir parole. last to keep his word 

C 



26 



FRENCH SOUNDS 



Cestun homme leger et inconstant, He is a light versatile character, 
entier en tout ce quHl veut, et sin- positive in all he undertakes, 
gulier en tout ce quilfait. and singular in all he does. 

This last observation is useful, in order to dis- 
tinguish when the above adjectives are related to 
feminine substantives. 

fhard, as in the English word 



J soft, like z as in #one, or s in 



iS has two sounds^ ^ lst ?. 1 ! ' 
)ft, lik< 

rose, please. 

Observation. — Shas the hard or hissing sound at 
the beginning of words, and the soft in the middle, 
between two vowels. 

EXAMPLES OF BOTH SOUNDS. 

saison sottise Suse 

saisir seduisant Syracuse 

S at the beginning of words, has generally its 
natural sound as in English. 

S before ch is silent in schall, Schaffliouse^ Schel- 
ling, schiste, schisme, schismatique, scherif, (an 
Arabic title). 

Sh in s fieri f, a sheriff, is sounded as in English. 

When s is followed by ce, cz, cy, the sound of only 
one of these consonants is heard, as in scdne, science, 
Scythie, &c, except in 



convales-cence 
efferves-cence 
efflores-cence 
adoles-cence 



incandes-cence 
reminis-cence 
resipis-cence 
mis-cible 



sus-ception 
sus-citer 



and a few others, where sc are distinctly pronounced. 
In all other combinations, sc has the sound of sk, as 
scapulaire, scolie, scribe, esclave, scrupule, &c. 

$ preserves the hissing sound in the middle of 



FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 



27 



words, where preceded or followed by a consonant, 
as in 



transe 


convulsion 


statistique 


transit 


valse 


&c, &c. 


Transylvanie 


espace 





hut it takes the soft sound of z in 



Alsace 
Asdrubal 
balsamine 
Israel 



Esdras 
Thiste 

presbitere 
transaction 



transiger 

transitoire 

intransitif 



and some few others. 

As it has been already stated, 5 between two 
vowels sounds like 0, as in maison, poison, rose, 
/raise, amuser, Sec, except, however, in compound 
words, where it keeps the hard sound of the initial 
s, as in 



desuetude 


polysyllabe 


priseance 


entresol 


parasol 


presupposer 


monosyllabe 


tournesol 


vraisemblable 



and some derivatives. 
For st final, see p. 30. 
Final s is always heard in the following words : 



aloes 


sinus 


tournevis 


as 


bis 


dervis 


bibus 


jadis 


laps 


virus 


iris 


Mars 


atlas 


gratis 


Rheims 


argus 


lapis 


Rubens 


hlocus 


le lis 


Gil- Bias 


agnus 


mats 


Reguius 


foetus 


metis 


Protesilas 


calus 


vis 


Las- Casas 



but generally speaking, final s is silent when the 
next word begins with a consonant, as mi moms 



28 FRENCH SOUNDS 

vous ne pouvez pas dire que je vous repete toujour* 

les memes c/wses. 

If before a vowel or h mute, final s is sounded 
like z, as dans mes propres interits, pronounced 
mes propre zinterets. 

Observation. — Final s is mute mfleur de lis, and 
in the word Christ, when preceded by that of Jesus, 
pronounced Jesu-Chri, but it is sounded when 
Christ is used alone, as le Christ, except in its com- 
pound Ante-christ, where it is pronounced Ante-kri. 

When s is double, the hissing sound seems a 
little harder. 

T'has two sounds, the natural as in English, and 
the accidental, which sounds as c in civil. 

Tat the beginning of a word, always preserves 
its proper sound, even when it is followed by two 
vowels, as Hare, tiedeur ; also in the middle, when- 
ever followed by any other vowel than i, and in the 
following combinations, in sti, xti, thi, as question, 
mixtion, Mathias ; but in ti, its sound is sometimes 
proper, sometimes accidental. 

It assumes the accidental sound : first, in adjec- 
tives ending in tial and tieux, as abbatial, captieux. 
Secondly. In those ending in tient, and their deri- 
vatives, as patient, patience, &c. Thirdly. In the 
words ending in atie, ttie, aptie, otie, and utie, as 
jjrimatie, prophetie, ineptie, Btotie, minutie, &e. 
Fourthly. In the verbs initier and halbutier, and 
their inflexions. Fifthly. In the names of nations 
or persons ending in tien, as Venitien, Diocletien, 
&c. Sixthly. In the nouns ending in tion, and their 
derivatives, as ambition 

In other words, t preserves its proper sound in 
ti, as galimatias, chdtier, le tien, Chretien. 

In sept and huit, it is sounded when they are used 



FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 



29 



by themselves, or when followed by a vowel, or 
h mute, but never before a consonant, or h aspi- 
rated, as sept houppelandes, huit chemises, pronounced 
ce-houpeland, ui-chemiz*. 

In vingt, it is sounded through the whole series, 
from twenty to thirty, and before a vowel or h mute, 
as vingt abricots, vingt homines. 

In words ending in ect, as in co7*rect and direct, 
(see p. 16 at the word observations.) 

In all other words, it is sounded when followed 
by a vowel with which it unites by euphony, as je 
sziis tout a vous ; cest un petit homme, pronounced 
tou-ta vou, peti-tom. — (Acad.) 

When double, we pronounce but one, except in 
atticisrne, attique, battologie, guttural, pittoresque. 

Observe that ti has generally the sound of cion 
in words ending- in tion when derived from the 
Greek or Latin languages. The same observation 
may apply to words ending in tie, as in democratic, 
inertie, ineptie, &c, pronounced democracie, inercie, 
and inepcie. 

Th in French is sounded like a single t, as in theo- 
logie, theatre, the, pronounced teologie, teatre, te. 

T final is always sounded in 



fat 


tacet 


transit 


mat 


Thibet 


dot 


pat 


aconit 


Astaroth 


opiat 


le zenith 


azimut 


exeat 


deficit 


hrut 


transeat 


granit 


chut 


vivat 


introit 


luth 


Goliath 


preterit 


occiput 



Both p and t are sounded in apt, rapt ; likewise 
both s and t are articulated in 



* Final t is also sounded in sept or huit when taken substantively, as le sept de 
cjeur, le huit de carreau (at cards). — Acad. 



30 FRENCH SOUNDS 



Le Christ 

Vest 

Vouest 

le lest d'un vaisseau 

Brest 



pest 
ioast 

entre le zist et le zest (a prover- 
bial expression.) 



In words ending in art, est, ort, ourt, the t final 
is generally silent, as well as in the conjunction et, 
which is never sounded*. 

V. This letter always preserves its proper sound, 
and is never double. 

Pronounce and write vide, vider, vidanger, instead 
of vuide, vuider, vuidanger. 

X has no proper sound. 

1. Accidental sound, cs as x in axiom. 

2. Accidental sound, gz, as gs in eggs. 

3. Accidental sound, ss, as 5 in bliss, mossy. 

4. Accidental sound, c, as xc in excellent. 

5. Accidental sound, z, as z in zone. 

1st sound, axe, sexe, axiome, luxe, Alexandre. 

2nd sound, examen, exemple, exile, exode, ex- 
torter, exhumer, exarque, Xenophon, Xavier. &c. 

3rd sound, soixante, Uruxelles, Auxone, Auxerre. 

4th sound, excellent, excellence, exceller, &c. 

5th sound, deuxieme, sixihne, dixihne, dix-huit, 
six abricots, &c. 

At the end of words, x is pronounced cs in Styx, 
phenix, index, borax, storax, onix, prefix, Pollux, 
and other proper names. 

In other words, it is not pronounced before a 
consonant; but before a vowel or h mute, it sounds 
z, as heureux enfant ; beaux a tongues annees, leases 
for many years. 

* This last observation on the final t applies also to the words alphabet, debet, 
placet, and quolibet, pronounced alphabe, debe, place, kolibe ; amict is pro- 
nounced amit, dropping the e. 

The letter s in est, third person indicative present of etre, to be, is never sounded. 
The same remark holds good for nt at the end of the third person plural of the 
verbs, which are equally silent if not followed by a vowel or h mute, as ilscraig- 
nent, Us veulent, Us obtiennent, pronounced craigne, veule, obtienne. 



FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 



31 



Luxeuil, the name of a town, is pronounced 
Lukceu. 

X takes the sound of sh only in Don Quixote, 
pronounced Don Kishot. 

Of the Y 

This letter when alone, as il y a, or at the begin- 
ning of words, as yeux, yatagan, and between two 
consonants, as acolyte, mystere, syntaxe, &c, is 
pronounced as simple i ; but between two vowels or 
preceded by one only, y has the sound of double ii, 
as essay er, ab b ay e, p ay er, employer, pays, pronounced 
pai-ier, pai-i, &c. When y is preceded by a, o, u 9 
it gives to them the diphthong-sound of ai, oi, ui, 
and in this case, the vowel following the y is to be 
pronounced like one of the diphthongs ia, ie, Sec, 
for which reason some modern grammarians have 
been induced to place the letter y among the diph- 
thongs : (see p. 14.) — (M. JBoissonade.) 

Remark. Y is used in words before one p only, 
as hypotliese, hyperbole, hypotheque, &c, but never 
before double^. 

Z. Proper sound ze, as z in zone, or as 5 in 
rose. 







EXAMPLES. 




Za-'im 


Turkish soldier 


zone 


zone 


ze-bre 


zebra 




ze-la-teur 


zealot 


z£le 


zeal 




zi-be-li-ne 


sable 


zenith 


zenith 




zi-za-ni-e 


dissension 


zephyr 


zephyr 




zo-di-a-que 


zodiac 


zero 


nought 




zo'i-le 


zoilus 


zig-zag 


zig-zag 




zo-o-lo-gi-e 


zoology 



Final z sounds in Metz and Rhodez. It is not 



32 FRENCH SOUNDS. 

pronounced in the second person plural of verbs, 
when followed by a consonant. 

We never double this letter, except in a few words 
taken from the Italian. 



%* We close our remarks on the French pronun- 
ciation by reminding the learner not to neglect 
the practice of the proper sound of the letters g, 
r, if, and even that of a and h silent, which sound 
is frequently confused by young beginners, with 
that of r and h aspirated. 



OF FRENCH MONOSYLLABLES. 



33 



OF THE SYLLABLES. 

A syllable is a sound either simple or compound, 
articulated at once, by a single impulse of the voice, 
as lot, foi, moi. 

READING EXERCISES. 

MONOSYLLABLES, OR WORDS OF ONE SYLLABLE. 

In the following table, italic letters at the end of words are not 
sounded, except before a vowel or h mute. 



A. 


bloc (biok) 


coeur 


dans 


F. 




blanc 


cor 


de 




Aout, pron. 


bu 


cerf 


des (de) 


fa 


ou 


but 


cid 


du 


faim (fain) 


a 




cul 


du 


fare? 


au 




cour 


dos 


faux 


au.r 


C. 


court 


doux 


fer 


arc (ark) 




creuo: 


deux 


feu 


art 


cap (kap) 


ces (ce) 


dru 


fi 


an (nas.) 


ca 


cri 


dix (dice) 


fin (nas.) 


cxS 


cil 


coq 


doigt (doi) 


fleur 


air 


car 


crin 


don 


fois 


ail(Zliq.) 


cal 


cru 


done 


flanc 


ais (e) 


camp (kan) 


cing 


dont 


fils (fi, and 


arrhes pron. 


ce 


cuit 


dot 


fis before 


ar 


choi.r 


cein£ 


due 


a vowel) 




cas (ka) 


croc 


dur 


fri* 


B. 


char 


cran 


dom 


fil 




clef (cle) 


choc 


dol 


fort 


bas 


choir 


club 


dey 


fonc? 


bac (c 


clos (klo) 


chut r 


deuil (/liq.) 


fron£ 


sound k) 


clair 


cep (ce) 


den* 


flu# 


bai (be) 


chef 


cent 




foe 


bal 


clerc (kler) 






foi 


boeuf 


chsait 




E. 


foin (nas ) 


blone? 


champ 


D. 




for 


bee (bek) 


coin (nas.) 




en 


fou 


brin (nas.) 


cou 


da 


eau 


four 


bois 


coup 


dam (dan) 


erse 


frais 


bon (nas.) 


chou 


dare? 


est (east) 


franc 


bone? 


cha£ 


daim (dain) 


eux 


frein (nas. ) 


bout 


clou 


dais (de) 




fre* 



34 



OF FRENCH MONOSYLLABLES. 



froe 


"he! 


L. 


mont 


nef 


froid 


/'hem ! 




mou 


net (ne ) 


fur 


heur (eur) 


le 


mais 


noeud 


m 


"hetre 


la 


mai 


noir 


fonts (fon) 


"heu ! 


les (le) 


mort 






/7 haim (hin) 


lis 


mors 


0. 


G 


heurt 


lit 


mis 




hard sound, 


/'hie 


lu 


mail (I liq v 


ceil ( liq.) 


seep. 19. 


ho ! (6) 


las 


main* 


ceuf 




"hoc 


long 


mal 


OS 


gai (ghe) 


/7 haire 


lait 


manr 


oing 


gan£ 


"hon 


laic? 


malt 


o'mt 


grand 


7/ hors 


lourd 


mil 


on (nas.) 


gland 


"hoiio? 


lard 


marc (mar) 


ou 


Gaud 


;/ haine 


len* 


Mars 


once 


gui 


"haie (he) 


le 


me 


or 


gras 




leur 


mer 


ort 


gros 


I. 


leu 


moeurs 


ouf! 


gens (jan) 


if 


lui 


moi 


ours 


gris 


il 


loup 


mois 




gout 


ils (s mute) 


lac 


mol 


P. 


glu 




laps 


mot 




gain 


J. 


legs (le) 


moiU 


poule 


gaz 


joug 


lest 


mu 


poil 


geai (je) 


(joughe) 


loi 


mur 


pou/s 


glas 


jus (s mute) 


lai (le) 


mur 


pou 


go 


jour 


lynx 




pon£ 


gourd 


jonc (c 


loch (lok) 




poids 


gramme 


mute) 


lors (lor) 


N. 


pois 


gre 


je 


lof 




poLr 


gres 


jais (s 


loin (nas.) 


non 


pin (nas.) 


griZ 


mute) 


loir 


ne 


pain (nas.) 


grog 


jean 


lot (16) 


ni 


pore 


guet (ghe) 


jars (s 


lut 


nid 


pour 


gue 


mute) 


luth (hit) 


noir 


pis 


gueux 


jas 


lord (lor) 


nous 


pic 


(gheu) 


jet (je) 




nos 


pie (pi) 




jeu# (sing. 


M. 


ne 


peur 


H. 


jeu) 




nez (ne) 


plai 




join£ 


ma> 


neuf 


plan (nas.) 


'/Ham 


juin (nas. ) 


mon 


nerf 


plan£ 


•''ha ! 




mes (me) 


nom (non) 


plis 


;/ han 


K. 


mi 


nu 


pleurs 


'hart 




mat 


mil 


plomb(plon 


hast (ast) 


Kan (nas.) 


mat 


nain (nas. ) 


nas.) 


"haut (ho) 


Koff 


main (nas.) 


nard 


plo£ 



OF FRENCH MONOSYLLABLES. 



35 



pare 


R. 


sain* (nas.) 


tare? 


turc (turk) 


par 




seiner (nas.) 


to* 




part 


rone? 


se 


trop 


U. 


pan (nas.) 


ra* 


serf 


tro* 




pre 


I'O* 


sel 


tor* 


un (nas.) 


pres 


ro* 


sec 


troc 


ut 


pre* 


ris 


si 


tu 


us 


jinx 


viz 


so* 


trou 




pris 


mux 


sous 


tronc 


V. 


part 


T'&S 


sou/ 


tir 




peu 


rais (re) 


sort 


tem/?s(nas.) 


ven* (nas.) 


pair 


rang (nas.) 


sue 


tac 


vous 


pai# 


re 


sangr (nas.) 


tain (nas.) 


vers 


pal 


re 


sauf 


talc 


ver 


pas 


reins (rin) 


soc 


tan (nas.) 


vert 


pat 


Rhin 


sau* 


tan* (nas.) 


vin (nas.) 


peau 


Rheims 


s a ure 


tau 


van (nas.) 


pec 


ric 


sceau (so) 


tau:r 


v'mgt 


pers 


rit 


seel 


te 


vil 


pet (pe) 


rob 


seau 


the (te) 


vif 


pied (pie) 


roc 


seps 


tein* (nas.) 


vos 


ploc 


roi 


sept (set) 


tel 


veau 


plus 


ru 


seuil(/liq.) 


test ou tet 


vol 


poin* (nas.) 


ru* 


seul 


thon(ton) 


va 


poin$f(nas.) 


rura 


sil 


thym (tin) 


vain (nas.) 


po. 


rumb 


sis 


tic- 


vague 


preu# 




six (ci) 


tiers 


(vaghe) 


prompt 


S. 


soeur 


tin 


val 


(nas.) 




soif 


toif 


veuf 


pur 


son (nas.) 


soin (nas.) 


toi 


vis 


pus 


sa 


sol 


tors 


vceu 




ses (se) 


su 


tour 


voir 


Q. 


sourc? 


sou 


toux 


voi# 




sur 


soir 


trace 


vrai 


quane? 


sur 




train (nas.) 


vu 


quai (ke) 


sans 


T. 


trai* 




quart (kar) 


sens 




tres 


Z. 


que (ke) 


soi 


toui 


treuil(Zliq.) 




qui (ki) 


soi* 


ton (nas.) 


tripe 


zain (nas. x 


quel (kel) 


sac 


ta 


trois 


zest 


queue (keu) 


sain (nas.) 


tes (te) 


trique(trik) 


zinc 


quoi (koa) 


sein (nas.) 


te 


tuf 


zisc 



36 



FRENCH READING OF MONOSYLLABLES. 



THE FOLLOWING MONOSYLLABLES GIVE TWO SOUNDS IN ONE 
SYLLABLE. 



del • 


groin (nas.) 


serre 


rapt 


ricn (nas.) 


cieux 


muid 


ebbe 


quartz 


pieu 


nuit 


muse 


ere 


(kouartz) 


mieux 


liuit 


seoir 


sien (nas.) 


tact 


and a few 


JDieu 


vieil (1 liq.) 


mien (nas.) 


lieu 


others. 


yeux 


vieux 


lien (nas) 


lieue 





FIRST READING LESSON, 

Where all the letters which must not be pronounced are distinguished 
by italics. 



1. Dieu est si bon, qu'il me fau 4 
tous les jours du bien. 

2. De lui je tiens tout, et sans 
lui je ne puis rien : II sai£ tout 
ce que je fais, et tou£ ce que je 
dis. 

3. Son ceil voi* le fond de mon 
eceur. 

4. II hait (he) le mal, et se plait 
au bien. 

5. Pres de lui, les rois sont moins 
que rien, tant il est grand. 

6. Je ne vis que par lui : je lui 
dois ce que j 'ai de plus cher. 

7. Ses (se) mains out fai£ tout ce 
que je vois de mes yeu.r, et tout 
ce qu'il y a de bon, de beau, et 
de grand ici bas ; les cieu.r, Fair, 
la mer et la terre sont ses 
oeuvres. 

8. En un mof, tout est plein de 
son sain£ nom ; il n'esf poin£ 
de lieu ou il ne soi£ present 



God is so bountiful, that he does 

me good every day. 
I have every thing from him ; he 

knows all that I do and all that 

I say. 

His eye penetrates into the bot- 
tom of my heart. 

He hates evil and is pleased with 
good. 

Compared to him, kings are less 
than nothing, so much is he 
above them. 

I live but through him ; I owe 
him all that I possess. 

All that I see are the works of 
his hands, and whatever be 
good, fine, and grand here be- 
low ; the heavens, the air, the 
sea, and the earth, are also his 
works. 

In a word, every thing is filled 
with his holy name ; there is 
no place where he is not 
present. 



OF FRENCH DISSYLLABLES. 



37 



ON DISSYLLABLES, 

OR WORDS OF TWO SYLLABLES. 



Hie following 


words the gender of which is not marked with the letter h 




are all masculine. 




A-bus 


abuse t 


cer-cle 


circle 


a-chat 


purchase 


ci-seau 


chisel 


ac-teur 


actor 


ci-seaux 


scissors 


d-ge 


age 


cle-ment 


clement 


d-me f. 


soul 


cli-mat 


climate 


an-neau 


ring 


cloi-son f. 


partition 


ar-deur f. 


ardour 


co-hue f. 


throng 


ar-gent 


money 


com-mun 


common 


as-tre 


star 


com-pas 


compasses 


aa-cun 


none 


com-te 


earl 


a-veu 


confession 


con-ge 


holiday 


a-vis 


advice 


con-te 


tale 


au-tre 


other 


co-quin 


rogue 


bal-con 


balcony 


cor-deau 


line 


ban-que f. 


bank 


co-te 


side 


bar -que f. 


a bark 


cou-ple 


couple 


ba-teau 


boat 


cou-reur 


runner 


bd-ton 


stick 


cous-sin 


cushion 


beau-tef. 


beauty 


cou-vent 


convent 


be-gue 


stammerer 


cre^-me f. 


cream 


be-te f. 


beast 


cri-me 


crime 


beur-re 


butter 


crot-te f. 


dirt 


bi-ble f. 


bible 


crou-te f. 


crust 


bld-me 


blame 


da-me f. 


lady 


bon-heur 


happiness 


dan-seur 


dancer 


bon-te f. 


goodness 


de-bit 


sale 


bos-quet 


grove 


de-but 


first appearance 


bou-quet 


nosegay 


de-mie f. 


half 


bour-geon 


bud 


de-pot 


deposit 


bour-ru 


surly 


desert 


wilderness 


brasseur 


brewer 


dessert 


dessert 


bri-gand 


robber 


dis-cours 


speech 


brus-que 


abrupt 


dou-leur f. 


pain 


bru-te f. 


brute 


e-cu 


crown 


buf-fet 


cupboard 


en-clume f. 


anvil 


bu-reau 


office 


en-fant 


child 


bus-te 


bust 


e-poux 


spouse 


ca-deau 


present 


es-poir 


hope 


ca-fe 


coffee 


e-tain 


pewter 


ca-hot 


jolt 


e-cran 


screen 


ca-non 


cannon 


ex-ces 


excess 


ca-ve f. 


cellar 


fes-tin 


feast 


cause f. 


cause 


fe-te f. 


festival 



38 



OF FRENCH DISSYLLABLES. 



fi-lou 


pickpocket 


lo-gis 


dwelling 


fla-con 


decanter 


lon-gueur f. 


length 


flam-beau 


flambeau 


mar-bre 


marble 


fld-te f. 


flute 


mar-chand 


tradesman 


fo-ret f. 


forest 


ma-ri 


husband 


fou-dre f . & m 


. thunderbolt 


me-re f. 


mother 


four-mi f. 


ant 


meu-ble 


furniture 


fri-pon 


knave 


mon-de 


world 


fu-reur f. 


fury 


mons-tre 


monster 


gaie-te f. 


cheerfulness 


mou-le 


mould 


gar-con 


boy 


mou-lin 


mill 


gd-teau 


cake 


ni-gaud 


silly fellow 


ga-zon 


turf 


nou-veau (adj.) new 


gen-dre 


son-in-law 


ceu-vre 


work 


gen-re 


gender 


on-guent (on 


" >ointnent 


gi-got (jig$) 


leg of mutton 


gan) 


gla-con 


piece of ice 


or-dre 


order 


gou-te 


luncheon 


ou-bli 


oblivion 


gout-te f. 


drop 


pa-rent 


relation 


grd-ce f. 


favour 


par -rain 


godfather 


gron-deur 


grumbler 


pd-te f. 


dough 


gru-au 


oatmeal 


pd-te 


pie 


gue-re (adv.) 


little 


pat-te f. 


paw 


guer-re f. 


war 


pe-che f. 


fishing, peach 


gueu-le f. 


mouth of a beast 


pe-che 


sin 


gui-de 


guide 


pe-cheur 


fisherman 


'hai-ne f. 


hatred 


pe-cheur 


sinner 


'hd-le 


sunburning 


pei-ne f. 


trouble 


'hal-le f. 


market-hall 


pein-tre 


painter 


'har-pe f. 


harp 


p£-re 


father 


r A«-fe f. 


haste 


peu-ple 


people 


'hau-teur f. 


height 


peu-reux 


fearful 


'ha-sard 


chance 


pin-te f. 


pint 


'he-tre 


beech 


plu-me f. 


feather 


hom-me 


man 


por-trait 


picture 


hon-neur 


honour 


pour-pre f. 


purple 


'hon-te f. 


shame 


prin-ce 


prince 


hor-reur f. 


horror 


pru-neau 


prune 


/zd-fe 


landlord 


ra-gout 


ragout 


ku-main 


human 


re-gle f , 


rule 


im-pie 


impious 


re-gne 


reign 


ju-ge 


judge 


rei-ne f. 


queen 


jour-nee f. 


day 


ren-te f. 


annuity 


lai-teux (adj.) 


milky 


re-ve 


dream 


la-quais 


footman 


ri-re 


laughing 


lar-cin 


theft 


rou-te f. 


road 


lar-geur f. 


breadth 


ruse f. 


trick 


li-queur f. 


liquor 


sa-bre 


sabre 



FRENCH READING OF DISSYLLABLE 



sa-lut 


salute 


ta-che L 


spot 


sou-ris f". 


mouse 


td-che f. 


task 


sa-tin 


satin 


tam-bour 


drum 


sau-ce f. 


sauce 


tom-beau 


grave 


sau-teur 


tumbler 


to-me 


volume 


se-jour 


residence 


tou-pie f. 


top 


si-gnal 


signal 


tour-neur 


turner 


si-gne 


sign 


trai-neau 


sledge 


som-bre (adj.) 


dark 


tro-ne 


throne 


sou-hait 


wish 


trou-peau 


flock 


sou-pe f. 


soup 


veu-ve f. 


widow 


sou-ris 


smile 


vi-gne f. 


vine 


su-cre 


sugar 


ze-le 


zeal 


sus-pect (adj.) 


suspicious 


ze-le (adj.) 


zealous. 



SECOND READING LESSON. 



1. L'a-bus de l'ar-gen^ nous est 
souven* fa-tal. 

2. L'homme ne sau-rak trou- 
ver un bon-heur par-fak sur la 
terre. 

3. Mal-heur a ce-lui qui faitf tort 
a son pro-chain. 

4. Les en-fans qui n'ai-me?i£ pas 
leurs pa-rens, se-ron* mau-dite 
de Dieu. 

5. Pourquoi penser plutot a notre 
corps qu'a notre ame, qui ne 
doi^ jamais perir. 

6. La vie n'est qu'un songe a la 
fin duquel on trouve la mori. 

7. Heureu# celui qui, etan£ seul, 
agrt, comme s'il etait en public. 

8. Sacher(che) mettre a profit ces 
(ce) lecons de morale. 



The ill-use of money is often fatal 

to us. 
Man could not find on earth a 

perfect happiness. 

Wo unto him who does wrong to 

his neighbour. 
Children who do not love their 

parents shall be cursed by 

God. 
Why do we think sooner of our 

body than of our soul, which 

shall never perish. 
Life is but a dream, at the end of 

which death is to be met with. 
Happy he, who when alone, be- 
haves himself the same as if he 

were in public. 
Know how to profit by these 

moral lessons. 



WORDS OF THREE SYLLABLES. 



A-ban-don 

fa-bu-leux 

bel-li-queux 

ga-geu-re 

cri-ti-qner 



ha-bil-ler 

da-moi-seau 

in-ves-tir 

e-blou-ir 

ioin-tu-re 



li-brai-re 

ra-mas-sant 

me-moi-re 

suc-cu-lent 

ne-bu-leux 



ne--an-moms 
o-ra-geux 
&c, &c. 



40 



OF THREE AND FOUR SYLLABLES. 



THIRD READING LESSON. 



1. Que son* done devenus ces 
peuples orgueilleur, inhumains, 
et bar-ba-res?... . ils ne sont 
plus, et ces temps fabuleux ou 
Tauguste verite n'approchai* de 
la cou-ron-ne qu'en rougissan^, 
se sont a jamais ecoules dans 
d'epaisses tenebres. 

2. Cependant, aujourd'hui, au 
siecle ou nous vivons, ou les 
sciences et les arts ont, pour 
ainsi dire, attein£ leur apogee, 
voyons-nous dirainuer l'audace 
du mensonge, et la verite plus 
libre de se montrer a la cour 
des grands et aux palais des 
rois? 



What has then become of those 
proud, inhuman, and barbarous 
people ? — They are no more, 
and these fabulous times, when 
divine truth was approaching 
the crown but in blushing, have 
disappeared forever into dark- 
ness and oblivion. 

However, at this present day, in 
our time, where arts and sci- 
ences have almost reached 
their highest pitch, do we per- 
ceive less boldness in falsehood, 
and truth with more freedom 
dare to show herself in the 
court of the great and the pa- 
laces of Kings ? 



WORDS OF FOUR SYLLABLES. 



Ac-ca-ble-ment 
be-ni-gne-ment 
cer-ti-tu-de 
da-van-ta-ge 
e- clip- ti- que 



fa-bri-ca-teur 
go-gue-nar-der 
he-mis-phe-re 
ig-no-ran-ce 
la-men- ta-ble 



mi-ra-cu-leux 

ob-sce-ni-te 

en-te-te-ment 

do-mi-na-teur 

do-mi-ni-cal 



FOURTH READING LESSON. 



1 . Ce tyran dominateur, se voyant 
abandonne de i'elite de la so- 
ciete, acquis, mais trop tard, la 
certitude accablante de son ig- 
norance condamnable et de ses 
fautes monstreuses. 

2. Son entetement ridicule, ses 
obscenites degoutantes, depuis 
long-temps retentissaie?i£ dans 
les deux hemispheres. 



That unmercifully ruling tyrant, 
perceiving that he was aban- 
doned by the select people of 
society, felt, but too late, the 
dreadful consequences both of 
his culpable ignorance and his 
monstrous vices. 

His ridiculous extravagance, join- 
ed to his disgusting obscenities, 
had for a long while echoed in 
both hemispheres. 



OF FIVE AND SIX SYLLABLES. 



41 



L Une position si lamentable ne 
pouvaif pas toujours durer ; 
tourmente par les remords 
poignants d'une conscience 
justement alarmee, ce nouveau 
Sardanapale ne sachant plus 
quel parti prendre, s'enferme 
dans son serail avec toutes ses 
femmes, auxquelles il commu- 
nique, en tremblanf, le sort 
fatal qui lui est reserve. 



Such a wretched state of things 
had lasted but too long ; a prey 
to the poignant remorse of a 
justly alarmed conscience, this 
new Sardanapalus, knowing 
not which way to turn, went 
and shut himself up in his se- 
raglio with all his wives, whom 
he apprised tremblingly with 
the fate which was awaiting 
him. 



WORDS OF FIVE AND SIX SYLLABLES. 



A-bre-vi-a-teur 
ab-ju-ra-ti-on 
a-ca-de-mi-que 
blas-phe-ma-toi-re 

A-ca-de-mi-ci-en 

be-ne-fl-ci-aire 

com-mu-ni-ca-ti-ve 

des-in-te-res-se-ment 

e-ga-li-sa-ti-on 

fon-da-men-ta-le-ment 



be-a-ti-fi-qiie 
bes-ti-a-li-te 
ca-te-chu-me-ne 
con-sub-stan-ti-el 



de-li-be-ra-tif 
de-di-ea-toi-re 
ec-cle-si-as-te 
em-ble-ma-ti-que 



gram-ma-ti-ea-le-ment 

his-to-ri-o-gra-phe 

in-ter-pre-ta-ti-on 

la-bo-ri-eu-se-ment 

me-tro-po-li-tai-ne 

ne-go-ci-a-ti-on 



FIFTH READING LESSOX. 



I. Un auteur Francais qui mal- 
heureusemen^ prostitua sa verve 
et sa plume a des compositions 
qui fon^rougir l'humanite, fit in- 
scrire sur sa tombe les paroles 
suivantes . " Ci-git P..., quine 
fu^ jamais rien, pas meme aca- 
demicien. 

2 II etait neanmoins doue d'une 
profonde erudition, et Voltaire 
meme, son contemporain, ne 
parlak pas plus grammaticale- 
ment que lui. 



A French author who unfortu- 
nately polluted his pen and 
poetical genius by writings dis- 
graceful to mankind, ordered 
the following inscription to be 
engraved on his tomb ; " Here 
lies P..., who was never any 
thing, not even an academi- 
cian." 

He was, however, endowed with 
a deep learning, and Voltaire 
himself, his contemporary, did 
not speak more grammatically 
than he did. 



42 OF SEVEN, EIGHT, AND NINE SYLLABLES. 

WORDS OF SEVEN, EIGHT, AND NINE 
SYLLABLES. 



Ar-ti-fi-ci-el-le-ment 
be-a-ti-fi-ca-ti-on 
con-sub-stan-ti-el-le-ment 
des-a-van- ta- geu-se-ment 

In-com-pre-hen-si-bi-li-te 
ir-re-con-ci-li-a-ble-ment 
mi-se-ri-cor-di-eu-se-ment 
spi-ri- tu-a-li- sa- ti- on 
de-na-tu-ra-li-sa-ti-on 

in-di-vi-du-a-li-sa-ti-on 
in-eons-ti-tu-ti-on-na-li-te 



ex-com-mu-m-ca-ti-on 
im-pe-ne-tra-bi-li-te 
ir-re-con-ci-li-a-ble 
per-pen-di-cu-lai-re-ment 

ir-re-pre-hen-si-bi-li-te 
a-ris-to-de-mo-cra-ti-que 
con- sti-tu-ti-on-nel-le-ment 
ex-tra-j u-di-ci-ai-re-ment 



in-cons-ti-tu- ti-on-nel-le-ment 



There are ten syllables in an-ti-cons-ti-tu-ti-on-nel-le-ment, the 
longest word in the French language. 

SIXTH READING LESSON. 



1. Lepouvoir aristodemocratique 
n'a de force qu'autantf qu'il agit 
constitutionnellemen£ sur la 
nation qu'il gouverne. 

2. Les beatifications ainsi que les 
excommunications foudroy- 
antes de laCour de Rome, sont 
bien moins frequentes actuelle- 
ment qu'elles n'etaient autre- 
fois, lorsque des haines irre- 
conciliables eclaterent au sein 
meme de l'Eglise du Christ, 
et firent couler a grands riots, 
le san^ de tous ceu# qui osaieiit 
refuser de croire a l'incompre- 
hensibilite des mysteres. 



The aristodemocratic power is 
effective only when constitu- 
tionally used over the nation 
which it governs. 

Beatifications and thundering ex- 
communications from the Ro- 
mish Court, are not so frequent 
now as they were formerly, 
when irreconciliable hatred 
burst even into the bosom of the 
Church of Christ, and caused 
floods of blood to be shed ; all 
those who refused their belief 
to the incomprehensibility of 
mysteries, were its victims. 



VOCABULARY. 



43 



A VOCABULARY, 

FRENCH AND ENGLISH, 

OF THE MOST USUAL WORDS COMMONLY SPOKEN IN FRENCH 
CONVERSATION. 



OF THE UNIVERSE IN GENERAL. 



I. 



Dieu m. 
createur m. 
Jesus- Christ m, 
trinite, f. 
saint- esprit m. 
ange m. 
ar change m. 
prophete m. 
Messie m. 
sauveur m, 
redempteur m. 
Vierge Marie f. 
apdtre m. 
evangelisie m. 
martyr m. 
saz?2^ m. 
paradis m. 
cieZ m. 
e/^/er m. 
tfoz&fe m. 
nature f. 
univers m. 
monde m. 
element m. 



God 

creator 

Jesus- Christ 

trinity 

Holy Ghost 

angel 

archangel 

prophet 

Messiah 

saviour 

redeemer 

Virgin Mary 

apostle 

evangelist 

martyr 

saint 

paradise 

heaven 

hell 

devil 

nature 

universe 

world 

element 



a terre f 



II. 

earth 
water 



lefeu m. 
/'air m. 
firmament m. 
efot'^ f. 
plancte f. 
comete f. 
constellation f. 
so/ei7 m. 

ra?/o?z efa soM m . 
/«?ze f. 
eclipse f. 
ora^e m. 
tonnerre m. 
ec/air m. 
brouillard m. 
p/wie f. 
arc-en- del m. 
o?z<iee f. 
we^e f. 
greZe f. 
#&zce f. 
ce/ee f. 



fire 

air 

sky 

star 

planet 

comet 

constellation 

sun 

sun-beam 

moon 

eclipse 

storm 

thunder 

lightning 

fog 

rdin 

rainbow 

shower 

snow 

hail 

ice 

frost 



III. 

thaw 

dew 

creature 

globe 

sphere 



degel m. 

rosee f. 

creature f. 

globe m. 

sphere f. 

hemisphere m. hemisphere 



44 



VOCABULARY. 



horison m. horizon 

degre m. degree 

longitude f. longitude 

latitude f. latitude 

points cardl 

naux pi. 
V orient or Vest m.east 
le septentrion or"! ., 



v cardinal points 



le nord m. 
V Occident or 

Vouest m. 
le midi or 

swcZ m. 
climat m. 
region f. 
continent m. 
VEurope f. 
7'^si'e f. 
VAfrique f. 
VAmerique f. 
empire m. 
royaume m. 



west 



? 1 south 

climate 

region 

continent 

Europe 

Asia 

Africa 

America 

empire 

kingdom 

IV. 



republique f. 
paz/s m. 
colonie f. 
principaute f. 
elector at m. 
province f. 
comte m. 
Ifef. 
presqu'ile or 

peninsule f. 
cap m. 

promontoire m. 
isihme m. 
montagne f. 
mora* m. 
colline f. 
Ze sommet m. 
lapente f. or Ze 

penchant m. 
hauteur f. 
tW/etf f. 
vallon m. 
afome m. 



republic 

country 

colony 

principality 

electorate 

province 

shire or county 

island 



^peninsula 

cape 

promontory 

isthmus 

mountain 

mount 

hill 

the summit 

^the declivity 

hillock 

valley 

dale 

abyss 



desert m. 
piaine f. 
marais m. 



Wve f. 
rivage m. 
cote f. 



rocher m. 
rocAe f. 

rocm. 

Za czmg f. 
pier re f. 
j9o?i£ m. 
chaussee f. 
#we m. 
gwai m. 
rowte f. 
sentier m. 
ybsse m. 
gravier m. 
sa&Ze m. 
sablon m. 
poussiere f. 
oceara m. 
wzer f. 
#o//e m. 
oaie f. 
rarfe f. 



awse f. 
cawaZ m. 
detroit m. 
cour antra, 
maree f. 
^/Zw-r m. 
reflux m. 
vague f. 
^/fofc m. pi. 



desert 
plain 
marsh or fen 



bank (of a river) 

shore 

coast 



rock j 1^ 



^3 2 

^ o o 



rock 



rock' 






the top 

stone 

bridge 

causeway 

ford 

wharf or quay 

road 

path 

ditch 

gravel 

sand 

small sand 

dust 



gulf 
bay 
road (for ships j 

VI. 

creek 

channel 

strait 

current 

tide 

flowing 

ebbing 

wave 

billows 



VOCABULARY. 



45 



ondes f. pi. 
havre m. 
port m. 
lac m. 
riviere f. 
ifteuve m. 
embouchure f. 
ruisseau m. 
debordement m. 
deluge m. 
inondation f. 
ec/wse f. 
d/<7we f. 
eto<7 m. 
vivier m. 



surge 

haven 

harbour 

lake 

river 

great river 

mouth of a river 

brook 

overtlowing 

deluge 

inundation 

flood-gate, sluice 

dike 

pond 

fish-pond 



VI I L 



reservoir m. 
abreuvoir m. 
6am m. 
citerne f. 
fontaine f. 
source f, 
jDwite m. 
pompe f. 
bateau m. 
barque f. 
6ac m. 

coc/?e e?'effM m 
gabare f. 
navire m. 
vaisseau m. 
paquebot m. 
flamme f. 
etincelle f. 
chaleur f. 
tfzwee f. 
incendie m. 
chauffage m. 
charbon m. 



VII. 

water-bason 

watering-place 

bath 

cistern 

fountain 

source 

well 

pump 

boat 

bark 

ferry-boat 

barge 

lighter 

ship 

vessel 

packet-boat 

blaze 

spark 

heat 

smoke 

conflagration 

fuel 

coals 



P i. 



pi. 



charbon de 
terre m. 

charbon de 

bois m. 
braise f. 
tourbe f. 
wo/fes f. pi. 
60 is m. 
6wcAe f: 
y«#o£ m. 
copeaux m 
cendre f. 
swze f. 
yew m. 
atmosphere f. 
ve7?£ m. 
zephyr m. 
vapeur f. 
lumiere f. 
tenebres f. 
chaleur f. 
^roie/ m. 
«we, ?mee f. 
nuage m. 
m'eZ/e f. 
humidite f. 
semw m. 



tourbiVon m. 
ortf^e m. 
tempete f. 
c<?/??2e m 
eternite f. 
temps m. 
szec/e m. 
epoque f. 
periode* f. 
efofe f. 

em m. annee f. 
77i el's m. 
Janvier m. 
Fevrier m. 



pit CGal 



I charcoal 

small coal 

turf 

peat 

wood 

log of wood 

faggot 

chips 

ashes 

soot 

fire 

atmosphere 

wind 

zephyr 

vapour 

light 

darkness 

heat 

cold 

cloud 

cloud 

blight 

dampness 

mildew 

IX. 

whirlwind 

storm 

tempest 

calm 

eternity 

time 

age or century 

epoch 

period 

date 

year 

month 

January 

February 



* Periode is of the masculine gender when it means a summit, the highest 
pitch. 



46 



VOCABULARY. 



Mars m. 
Avril m. 
Mai m. 
Jain m. 
Juillet m . 
^4oz^ m. 
Septembre m. 
Octobre m. 
Novembre m. 
JDecembre, m. 
semaine f. 



March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

week 

X. 



i?owr m. 
Journee f. 
aujouid'hui m. 
demain m. 
apres-demain 

(adv.) 
fo'er m. 
Lundi m. 
Mardi m. 
Merer edi m. 
Jeudi m. 
Vendredi m. 
Samedi m. 
Dimanche m. 
heure f. 
demi-heure f. 

quart- d'henre m 

aurore f. 
awfe f. 
Ze ma^ra m 
matinee f. 
#22^' m. 



day 

day 

to-day 

to-morrow 

!>after to-morrow 

yesterday 
Monday 
Tuesday 
Wednesday 
Thursday 
Friday 
Saturday 
Sunday 
hour 

half-an-hour 
'* hour and a half 
f quarter of an 
\ hour 
aurora 
dawn 
morning 
forenoon 



lapres-midi f . ") . r 

■ ^ £ Vthe afternoon 



V apres-dinee 
le soir m. 
/« soiree f. 
crepuscule m. 
tiwzY f. 
minuit m. 



j 



minute f. 

seconde f. 

moment m. 

instant m. 

saison f. 

printemps m. 

e£e m. 

automnej m. & f autumn 

fa'uer m. winter 

carnaval m. carnival 

careme m. lent 

mi-car erne f. mid-lent 

paque f. v. Diet. Easter 



evening 

twilight 

night 

midnight 



XL 

minute 

second 

moment 

instant 

seas on 

spring 

summer 



pentecote f. 
/a Saint-Jean^. 
I'Avent m. 
iVbeZ m. 
/ete f . 
equinox e m. 
Ze solstice m. 
/a canicuk f. 
lafenaison f. 
moisson f. 



Whit Sunday 
Midsummer 
the Advent 
Christmas 
festival, holiday 
equinox 
the solstices 
the dog-days 
hay-harvest 
harvest- time 



vendues f pl| vint 

vide Diet. / & 

/a tate f. shearing-time 

semailles f. pi. sowing-time 
conge m. play-day 



* When the word tfemie comes after the substantive, it takes the mute e, but 
never when it is placed before it, 

f Used now only in the masculine gender. 

| La, feminine article, relates to the word/lfe, which is understood. 



VOCABULARY. 



47 







OF 


MAN. 






XII. 






XIII. 


genre humain m. mankind 




nain m. 


dwarf 


homme m. 


man 




pigmee m. 


pigmy 


femme f. 


woman 




Tftan m. 


husband 


sexe m. 


sex 




femme f. 


wife 


enfant m. 


child 




vez//*m. 


widower 


garcon m. 


' boy 




vewve f. 


widow 


Jfefe f . 


girl 




orphelin m. 


orphan (boy) 


vierge f. 


virgin 




orpheline f. 


orphan (girl) 


virginite f. 


virginity 




heritier m. 


heir 


e?i/a?ice 


infancy 




heritiere f. 


heiress 


jeunesse f. 


youth 




maitre m. 


master 


adolescence f. 


adolescence 




maitresse f. 


mistress 


VVTultP 1 

. .,xp ,,>, >manhood 
maturitei.dagej 




Aote m. 
hotesse f. 


landlord 
landlady 


vieillesse f. 


old age 




domestique m. 


servant 


decrepitude f. 


decrepitude 




servante f. 


maid-servant 


yewwe homme m. youth or lad 




voisin m. 


neighbour 


jezme ^//e f. 


young girl or lass 


voisine f. 


neighbour (fra) 


vieillard m. 


old man 




compagnon m 


companion 


gea/tf m. 


giant 




compagne f. 


companion (fm) 




or 


TH 


E BODY. 





* Words marked with an asterisk are equally used in the singular number 



XIV. 



corps m. 




body 


membres m. 


P i. 


members 


frorcc m. 




trunk 


tete f. 




head 


crarce m. 




skull 


front m. 




forehead 


visage m. 




face 


rrazYs m. pi. 




features 


fl?i7 m. 




eye 


z/e?^ m. pi. 




eyes 


sourcils* m 


pi 


eye-brows 



paupiere f. 


eye-lid 


nez m. 


nose 


narines* f. pi. 


nostrils 


bouche f. 


mouth 


levres* f. pi. 
derc£ f. 


lips 
tooth 


gencives* f. pi. 
machoire f. 


gums 
jaw-bone 


langue f. 
palais m. 
joues* f. pi. 


tongue 
palate 
cheeks 


fossette f. 
menton m. 


dimple 
chin 



48 



VOCABULARY. 



barbe f. 
tempes* f. pi. 

oreille f. 



cheveux m. pi. 
cou m. 
gosier m. 
sein m. 
mamelle f. 
ventre m. 
ceinture f. 
co7e m. 
"handle f. 
cuisses* f. pi. 
genou m. 
j arret m. 
ro£w/e f. 
jambe f. 
W20#e£ m. 
pz'eo? m. 
taftm m. 
orfoi/ m. 
oras m. 
cowJe m. 
Vaisselle f. 
epaule f. 
7?iam f. 
poing m. 
poignet m. 
doz'gtf m. 
pouce m. 
m'ws m. pi. 



beard 

temples 

ear 

XV. 

haii- 
neck 
throat 
bosom 
breast 
belly 
waist 
side 
haunch 
thighs 
knee 
ham 

ball of the knee 
leg 

calf of the leg 
foot 
heel 
toe 
arm 
elbow 
the arm-pit 
shoulder 
hand 
fist 
wrist 
finger 
thumb 
loins 

XVI. 



angle m. 
cote f. 
cerveau m. 
cervelle f. 
squelette m. 
cceur m. 
poumon m. 
foie m. 
rate f. 
estomac m. 
entrailles f. 



} 



nail 
rib 

brain 



skeleton 
heart 
lungs 
liver 
spleen 
stomach 
pi. entrails 



P i. 



sang m. 
humeurs* f. pi. 
glande f. 
poil m. 
cAc«V f. 
peaw f. 
pores'* m. 
nerfm. 
artere f. 
vezrce f. 
05 m. 
moelle f. 
r/cfc f. 
bouton m. 
StfWft? f. 

temperament m. 



blood 

humours 

gland 

hair of the body 

tlesh 

skin 

pores 

nerve 

artery 

vein 

bone 

marrow 

wrinkle 

pimple 

health 

constitution 



XVII. 



embonpoint m. 
maigreur f. 
teint m. 
rongeur f. 
paleur f. 
port m. 
demarche f. 
o-psfe m. 
vivacite f. 
enjouement m. 
0"aift? f. 
beaute f. 

charmes* m. pl.^j 
atiraits m. pi. I 
appas m. pi. J 
agrement m. 
laideur f. 
foz7/e f. 
vo?> f. 
parole 
silence m. 
action f. 
mouvement m, 
repos m. 
grimace f. 
m, nre, m. 
souris, sourirem. 



plumpness 

leanness 

complexion 

redness 

paleness 

countenance 

gait 

gesture 

liveliness 

sprightliness 

gaiety 

beauty 

charms 

agreeableness 

ugliness 

shape, size 

voice 

speech 

silence 

action 

motion 

rest 

grimace 

laughter 

smile 



VOCABULARY. 



49 



XVIII. 

kumeur f. crossness 

soupir m. sigh 

gemissement m. groan 
assoupissementm. drowsiness 
sleep 

> dream 



sommeil m. 
songe m. 
reve m. 
souffle m. 
haleine f. 
respiration f. 
eternument m 
rwe f. 
ozwe f. 
odoTftt m. 
<?ow£ m. 
toucher m. 
sentiment m. 
obscurite f. 
07?*&re f. 
sow m. 
orw# m. 
oefewr f- 
puanteur f. 
saveur f. 



Ibreath 

sneezing 

sight 

hearing 

smelling 

taste 

feeling 

sense 

darkness 

shade 

sound 

noise 

smell 

stench 

relish 



sensations* f. pi. sensations 
chatouillement m. tickling 
plaisir m. pleasure 

XIX. 



joze f. 

douleur f. 

/ctfm f. 

soz/f. 

degout m. 

maladie f. 

waZ m. 

incommodite f. 

infirmite f. 

indisposition f. 

wia/ cfe efercte m. 

wiaZ cfe I'efe m. 

ma/ cwar i/ewj; m 

migraine f. 

vertige m. 

evanouissementm swooning 

defaillance ft fainting 



joy 

pain 

hunger 

thirst 

surfeit 

disease 

ailment 

illness 

infirmity 

disorder 

tooth-ache 

head-ache 

sore eyes 

megrim 

dizziness 



faiblesse f. 
demangeaison f. 
pesanteur f. 
engourdisse- ] 
ment m. \ 

insomnie f. 
coup m. 
contre-coup m. 
egratignure f. 
ecorchure f. 
entorse f. 



swoon 
itching 
heaviness 

numbness 

want of sleep 

blow 

counter-blow 

scratch 

excoriation 

sprain 



XX. 



foulure f. 
enflure f. 
tumeur f. 
meurtrissure f. 
contusion f. 
blessure f. 
cicatrice f. 
w/c£re m. 

gangrene f. 

coupure f. 
brulure f. 
cor m. 
durillon m. 
enrouement m. 
rhume m. 
fow.r f. 
coqueluche f. 
surdite f . 
frenesie f. 
/o&<? f. 
nz<7e f. 
goutte f. 
convulsions $. pi. 
vapeurs f. pi. 
fidvre f. 
frisson m. 
acces m. 



strain 

swelling 

tumour 

bruise 

contusion 

wound 

scar 

ulcer 

f gangrene, mor- 

\ tification 

cut 

burning 

corn 

callosity 

hoarseness 

cold 

cough 

hooping-cough 

deafness 

frenzy 

lunacy 

madness 

gout 

convulsive fits 

vapours 

fever 

shivering 

fit 



XXI. 



oJe&'re m. 
crise f. 
medecine f. 
medtcin m. 



delirium 
crisis 
physic 
physician 



50 

chirurgicn m. 
apothicaire m. 
accoucheur m. 
sage-femme f. 
consultation f. 
ordonnance f. 
remide m. 
drogues f. pi. 
poudres* f. pi. 
pilules* f. pi. 
saignee f. 
lancette f. 
gouttes* f. pi. 



VOCABULARY. 


surgeon 


bain m. 


apothecary 
man-midwife 
midwife 
consultation 


regime m. 
szrcp m. 
agonie f. 
wzor£ f. 


prescription 
remedy 


cadavre m. 
we f. 


drugs 
powders 


guerkon f. 
rechute f. 


pills 

bleeding 

lancet 


symptome m. 
convalescence f. 


drops 





bath 
diet 
sirup 
agony 
death 
corpse 
life 

recovery 
relapse 
symptom 
f" fair way of re- 
\ covering 



OF THE MIND AND ITS FACULTIES. 





XXII. 


connaissance f. 


knowledge 






penetration f. 


penetration 


dme f. 


soul 


sagacite f. 


sagacity 


esprit m. 


mind 


disposition f. 


disposition 


gem'g m. 


genius 


inclination f. 


inclination 


raison f. 


reason 






entendement m. understanding 


xx: 


jugement m. 


judgment 






se#s m. 


sense 


capacite f. 


capacity 


pensee f. 


thought 


memoire f. 


memory 


2Wee f . 


idea 


souvenir m. 


remembrance 


imagination f. 


imagination 


ow&Zz m. 


forgetfulness 


fantaisie f. 


fancy 


stupidite f. 


stupidity 


caprice m. 


whim 


passions* f. pi. 


passions 


volonte f. 


will 


affections* f. pi 


affections 


liberie I. 


liberty 


amour m. 


love 


6^/ esprit m. 


wit 


amours f. pi. 


amours 


opinion f. 


opinion 


^azwe f. 


hatred 


sentiment m. 


sentiment 


c?eszr m. 


desire 


vmYe f. 


truth 


crainte, peur f. 


fear 


erreur f. 


error 


apprehension f. 


apprehension 


vraisemblance 


f. likelihood 


esperance f. 


hope 


probability f. 


probability 


confiance f. 


confidence 


apparence f. 


appearance 


"horde f. 


shame 


meprise f. 


mistake 


timidite f. 


bashfulness 


fo&we f. 


oversight 


"hardiesse f. 


boldness 


science f. 


science 


assurance f. 


confidence 



VOCABULARY. 



51 



colire f. 
courroux m. 
fureur f. 
rage f. 

resseniiment m. 
vengeance f. 
e^ep^ m. 
deplaisir m. 
tristesse f. 
chagrin m. 
petTze f. 



anger 

wrath 

fury 

rage 

resentmnnt 

revenge 

spite 

displeasure 

sadness 

grief 

sorrow 



XXIV. 



desespoir m. 
doute m. 
soupcon m. 
envze f. 
jalousie f. 
mft'e f. 

misericorde f. 
compassion f. 
terreur £ 
epouvante f. 
indignation f. 
verta f. 
charite f. 
justice f. 
temperance f. 
sobriete f. 
/brce f. 
modestie f. 
pudeur f. 
civilite f. 
politesse f. 
honneteU f. 
complaisance f. 
douceur f. 
6o?tfe f. 
amitie £ 
union f. 
Concorde f. 
/>ai.r f. 
tranquillite f. 



despair 

doubt 

suspicion 

envy 

jealousy 

pity 

mercy 

compassion 

terror 

fright 

indignation 

virtue 

charity 

justice 

temperance 

sobriety 

fortitude 

modesty 

bashfulness 

civility 

politeness 

honesty 

complaisance 

sweetness 

goodness 

friendship 

union 

concord 

peace 

tranquillity 



XXV. 



patience f. 
prudence f. 



patience 
prudence 



economic f. 
kabdete f. 
Industrie f. 
som m. 
diligence f. 
exactitude f. 
honneur m. 
probite f. 
desinteresse- 

ment m. 
sagesse f. 
Constance f. 
bienveillance f. 
emulation f. 
faveur f. 
valeur f. 
bravoure f. 
courage m. 
finesse f., rwse 
adresse f. 
chastete f. 
innocence f. 
liber alite f. 
generosite f. 
reconnaissance 
frugalite f. 
prosperity f. 
adversite f. 



economy 

skill 

industry 

caifc 

diligence 

exactness 

honour 

probity 

} disinterested- 
ness 
wisdom 
constancy 
benevolence 
emulation 
favour 
valour 
bravery 
courage 

f. cunning 
skill > 
chastity 
innocence 
liberality 
generosity 

f. gratitude 
frugality 
prosperity 
adversity 



XXVI. 



mceurs f. pi. 
bonheur m. 
recompense f. 
pn'-r m. 
present m. 

G?07l m. 
pr*?£ m. 
grace f. 
reputation f. 
vice m. 
defaut m. 
imperfection f. 
avarice f. 
avidite f. 
orgueilm. 
paresse f. 
faineantise f. 



manners 

happiness 

reward 

prize 

present 

gift 

loan 

grace 

fame 

vice 

defect 

imperfection 

avarice 

greediness 

pride 

idleness 

slothfulness 



52 



VOCABULARY. 



lachete f. 
nonchalance f. 
luxe m. 
mollesse f. 
impurete f. 
debauche f. 
dissolution f. 
liber tinage m. 
dhordre m. 
derSglement m- 
viepris m. 
raillerie f. 
moquerie f. 



sluggishness 

carelessness 

luxury, pomp 

effeminacy 

lewdness 

debauchery 

dissoluteness 

libertinism 

disorderly life 

licentiousness 

contempt 

jest 

mockery 



XXVII. 



medisance f. 

calomnie f. 
crime m. 
malice f. 
mechancete f. 
tromperie f. 
parjure m. 
friponnerie f. 
fourberie f. 
enchantement m, 
injustice f. 
for£ m. 
wswre f. 
acAa£ m. 
rente f. 
froc m. 
^a^e m. 
</^pd^ m. 
contrat m. 
marche m. 
bassesse f. 
impudence f. 
effronterie f. 
audace f. 
temerite f. 
poltronnerie f. 
opinidtretef* 
obstination f. 
cruaute f. 
dispute f. 



{detraction i 
slander 
calumny 
crime 
malice 
wickedness 
deceit 
perjury 
knavery 
guile, roguery 
witchcraft 
injustice 
wrong 
usury 
purchase 
sale 
barter 
pledge 
trust 
contract 
bargain 
meanness 
impudence 
effrontery 
audaciousness 
temerity 
cowardness 
stubbornness 
obstinacy 
cruelty 
dispute 



XXVIII. 



querelle f. 
brouillerie f. 
6ct6i7 m. 
caquet m. 
inconstance f. 
ingratitude f. 
ambition f. 
prodigalite f. 
gourmandise f. 
impolitesse f. 
incivilite f. 
dissension f. 
impatience f. 
imprudence f. 
negligence f. 
malhonnetete f. 
deshonneur m. 
exzY m. 

bannissement m. 
pusillanimite f. 
trahison f. 
perfidie f. 
punition f. 
chdtiment m. 
legerete f. 
coquetterie f. 
badinage m. 
larcin m. 
voZm. 
^ow m. 



quarrel 

broil 

babbling 

prattling 

inconstancy 

ungratefulness 

ambition 

prodigality 

gluttony 

unpoliteness 

incivility 

dissension 

impatience 

imprudence 

negligence 

rudeness 

disgrace 

exile 

banishment 

pusillanimity 

treachery 

perfidiousness 

punishment 

chastisement 

levity 

coquetry 

sport 

robbery 

theft 

pickpocket 



XXIX. 



tromperie f. 
ivrognerie f- 
ivresse f. 
assassinat m. 
meurtre m. 
mensonge m. 
faussete, f. 
cowte m. 
servient m. 
malheur m. 
^bfte f. 

extravagance f. 
coutume m. 



deceit 

[> drunkenness 

murder 

manslaughter 

lie 

falsehood 

tale 

oath 

misfortune 

folly 

madness 

custom 



usage m. 

pratique f. 

habitude f. 

licence f. 

exces m. 

tour m. 

bagatelles f. pi. trifles 



VOCABULARY. 




use 

practice 
habit 
licentiousness 


faute f. 
faiblesse f. 
faible m. 
affront m. 


fault 

weakness 
foible 
affront 


excess 
trick 


outrage m. 
insulte f. 


outrage 
insult 



53 



OF QUADRUPEDS. 



XXX. 



6#e f. 
animal m. 
animal domes- 

tique 
bete de somme 

monture f. 

cheval m. 
cavalle f. 
jument f. 
etalon m. 
poulain m. 
pouliche f. 
fo'dief m. 
crae m. 
dnesse f. 
ttworc m. 
mulet m. 
m«/e f. 
6ete a comes f, 

6i{$?e m. 
taureau m. 
vadta f. 
genisse f. 
aeaw m. 
bouvillon m. 
rewwe m. 
brebis f. 
mouton m. 
fccZier m. 
agneau m. 



beast 
animal 

I tame beast 

beast of burden 

{beast for the 
saddle 
horse 
mare 
mare 
stallion 
colt 
filly 
pony- 
ass 

milk-ass 
young ass 
mule 
she-mule 
horned-beast 
ox 

buffalo 
bull 
cow 
heifer 
calf 
bullock 
rein- deer 
ewe 
wether 
ram 
lamb 



chevre f. 
6owc m. 
chevreau m. 
cochon m. 
pore m. 
pourceau m. 
tfrm'e f. 
cochon de lait 
cochon d'Inde 
verrat m. 
sanglier m. 
Zaie f. 

marcassin m. 
betefauve 
cerfm, 
biche f. 

/aow m. (fan) 
(fazm m. 

daimfemelle 
chevreuil m. 
chevrette f. 
chamois m. 
Zzow m. 
Ziorcwe f. 
lionceau m. 
tfgre m. 
tigresse f. 
omt-s m. 
ourson m. 
zeore m. 
girafe f. 
leopard m. 
cameleopard m. 



she-goat 

he-goat 

kid 

hog 

Pig 

Pig 

sow 

sucking pig 

guinea pig 

boar 

wild boar 

wild sow 

young wild boar 

wild deer 

stag 

hind 

fawn 

fallow-deer 

buck 

doe 

roe-buck 

roe 

chamois 

lion 

lioness 

lion's whelp 

tiger 

tigress 

bear 

bear's cub 

zebra 

giraffe 

leopard 

cameleopard 



54 

rhinoceros m. 
hippopotame m. 
elephant m. 
chameau m. 
dromadaire m. 
Za/rca m. 
buffletin m. 
bufflonei f, 
Az/erce f. 
panthere f. 
owce f. 
licorne f. 
eZa?i m. 
/owp m. 
Zowue f. 
louveteau m. 
/^/wa7 m. 
renard m. 
taisson m. 
blaireau m. 
castor m. 
her mine f. 
marte, zibeline 
ecureuil m. 
'herisson m. 
pore-epic m. 
Zowfre f. 
rafcm m. 
/wr«£ m. 
fteyre m. 
'Aase m. 
levraut m. 
Zapm m. 
lapine f, 
cAzV/z m. 
chienne f. 
Zece f. 
levrier m. 
levrette f. 
cZo#?/e m. 
doguin m. 
maftTi m. 
limier m. 
bichon m. 



VOCABULARY. 


rhinoceros 


epagneul m. 


river-horse 


basset m. 


elephant 


barbet m. 


camel 


chien d y arret 


dromedary 


rneute de chiens 


lama 


chat, matou m. 


young buffalo 


chatte f. 


female buffalo 


chaton m. 


hyena 


minon in. 


panther 


minet m. mi- 


ounce 


nette f. 


unicorn 


singe m. 


elk 


guenon f. 


wolf 


magot, babou- 


she-wolf 


in m. 


wolf's cub 


gazelle f. 


lynx 


belette f. 


fox 


putois m. 


brock » 


fouine f. 


badger 


genette f. 


beaver 


mwsc m. 


ermine 


Zoir m. 


marten, sable 


marmotte f. 


squirrel 


tawp£ f. 


hedge-hog 


ra£ m. 


porcupine 


souris f. 


otter 


tortue f. 


rackoon 


Z>e&«7 m. 5es-^ 


ferret 


tiaux 


hare 


troupeau m. 


doe-hare 


patre, berger m. 


leveret 


bergere f. 


rabbit 


vacher, bouvier 


doe-rabbit 


porcher m. 


dog 


chasse f. 


bitch 


chasseur m. 


hound-bitch 


braconnier m. 


greyhound 


gibier, m.venai-^ 


greyhound-bitch 


son f. 


bull-dog 


^sz'Z m. 


whelp 


gibeciere f. 


mastiff 


ftVe 


blood-hound 


ft'rewr m. 


lap-dog 


garde-chasse m. 



spaniel 

terrier 

shagged- dog 

pointer 

pack of hounds 

cat, tom-cat 

she-cat, puss 

kitten 

puss 

J- young kitten 

monkey 
ape 

" > baboon 

antelope 

weasel 

pole- cat 

pole-cat 

wild- cat 

musk-cat 

dormouse 

marmot 

mole 

rat 

mouse 

tortoise 

"\ cattle 

flock, herd 

shepherd 

shepherdess 

cow-herd 

swine-herd 

hunting 

hunter 

poacher 

I game 

gun 
pouch 
shooting 
shooter 



f The French Academy spells that word -with double tin, but without giving 
any reason for so doing. 



VOCABULARY. 



or 





Of BIRDS. 




XXXI. 


alouette f. 


lark 






bergeronnette 


wagtail 


oiseau m. 


bird 


alcyon or mar 


' Iking's fisher 


oiselet, oisillonm. little bird 


tin-pecheur 


volatile f. 


fowl 


pivert m. 


woodpecker 


coq m. 


cock 


mesange f. 


tit 


poule f. 


hen 


pluvier m. 


plover 


poulet m. 


chicken 


roitelet m. 


wren 


poussin m. 


young chicken 


vanneau m. 


lapwing 


cocAe* m. 


cockerel 


6 m tor m. 


bittern 


poularde f. 


pullet 


becfigue m. 


beccafico 


chapon m. 


capon 


etourneau m. 


starling 


cog oVInde, 
dindon m. 


| turkey-cock 


sansonnet m. 
bruant m. 


starling 
yellow-hammer 


diVicfe m. 


turkey-hen 


coucou m. 


cuckoo 


dindonneau m. 


young turkey 


freux, grollem. 


rook 


Oi'e f. 


goose 


corbeau m. 


raven 


jars m. 


gander 


corneille m. 


crow 


oiscm m. 


gosling 


/moom m. 


owl 


canard m. 


drake 


chouette f. 


screech-owl 


carce f. 


duck 


OMse f. 


buzzard 


caneton m. 


v duckling 


choucas m. 


chough 


canette f. 


a^/e m. 


eagle 


pigeon m. 


pigeon 


aiglon m. 


eaglet 


colombe f. 


dove 


epervier m. 


sparrow-hawk 


sm'rc, canari m. canary-bird 


emouchet m. 


musket-hawk 


perroquet m. 


parrot 


milan m. 


kite 


perruche f. 


paroquet 


faucon m. 


falcon 


moineau m. 


J- sparrow 


cormoran m. 


cormorant 


passereau m 


plongeon m. 


didapper 


hirondelle f. 


swallow 


/zeroM m. 


heron 


martinet m. 


martin 


cigogne f. 


stork 


rossignol m. 


nightingale 


outarde f. 


bustard 


chardonneret m. goldfinch 


pelican m. 


pelican 


pinson m. 


chaffinch 


autour m. 


gos-hawk 


verdier m. 


greenfinch 


vautour m. 


vulture 


bouvreuil m. 


bullfinch 


griffon m. 


griffin 


ZiVzo^ m. /mote f. linnet 


huppe f. 


lapwing 


rouge-gorge m 


redbreast, robin 


mouette f. 


gull 


?«er/e m. 


blackbird 


perdrix f. 


partridge 


<ym - e f. 


thrush 

jay 


bariavelle f. 


J" large red par 
^ tridge 


£>*'e f, 


magpie 


perdreau m. 


quail 



56 



VOCABULARY. 



cailletcau m. 
faisan m. 
faisandeau m. 
becasse f. 
becassine f. 
ortolan m. 
tourterelle f. 
gelinotte f. 
francolin m. 
ramier m. 
macreuse f. 
sarcelle f. 
$rrwe f. 
courlis m. 

foulque m. 



young quail 

pheasant 

young pheasant 

woodcock 

snipe 

ortolan 

turtle-dove 

godwit 

francoline 

wood-pigeon 

sea-duck 

teal 

crane 

curlew 

{coot, moor- 
cock or hen 
moor-hen 
peacock 



paonne f. 
paonneau m. 
cy^we m. 
autruche f. 
pintade f. 
jfow Je bassan 
pingoin m. 
chauve-souris 
chasse aux 
oiseaux 
appeau m. 
gluaux m. 
trebuchet rn. 
filets* m. pi. 
oiseleur m. 
oiselier m. 
voliere f. 



pea-hen 

young peacock 

swan 

ostrich 

pintado 
m. gannet 

razor-bill 
f. bat 

V fowling 

bird-call 

lime twig 

bird- trap 

nets 

bird-catcher 

bird-seller 

aviary 



OF FISHES. 



XXXII. 



pozsson m. 


fish 


e sturgeon m. 


sturgeon 


turbot m. 


turbot 


saumon m. 


salmon 


rouget m. 


roach 


brocket m. 


pike 


carpe f. 


carp 


Zrzzzfe f. 


trout 


perche f. 


perch 


cabillaud m. 


fresh cod 


morue f. 


stock fish 


ra/e f. 


skate 


tanche f. 


tench 


eperlan m. 


smelt 


maquereau m. 


mackerel 


surmulet m. 


mullet 


carrelet m. 


flounder 


barbeau m. 


barbel 


a/ose m. 


shad 



soZe f. 
sardine f. 
£/zo?i m. 
p/ze f. 
congre m. 
merlan m. 
merluche f. 
hareng m. 
secAe f. 
llmande f. 
lamproie m. 
homard, Ian- 

gouste 
ecrevisse de 

mer f. 
ecrevisse f. 
cra&e m. 
crevette £ 
chevrette f. 
anguille f. 
anchois m. 



sole 

sprat 

tunny 

plaice 

conger 

whiting 

haddock 

herring 

cuttle fish 

burt, bret fish 

lamprey 

* lobster 

crawfish 

crab 

prawn 

shrimp 

eel 

anchovy 





VOCABULARY. 


57 


goujon m. 


gudgeon 




chien marin m» 


sea-dog 


veron m. 


minnow 




hup marin m. 


sea-wolf 


lotte, barbotte f. 
loche f. 


eel-pout 
f loach, gr 
1 ling 


9und- 


herisson de 
, mer m* 


> sea-urchin 






frai m. 


fry- 


morue saUe f. 


salt-fish 




fvetin m. 


young fish 


barbue f. 


dab 




Z##e f. 


soft roe 


marsouin m. 


f sea-nog, 
t poise 


por- 


a?z//s m. 


spawn, hard roe 






museau m. 


snout 


espadon m. 


saw-fish 




owzes f. 


gills 


porcelaine i. 


sea-snail 




nageoires f. 


fins 


tortue f. 


tortoise 




ecailles f. 


scales 


Aw#re f. 


oyster 




coquiUes f. 


shells 


petoncle m. 


cockle 




aretes f . 


bones 


wiowZe f . 


muscle 




pinces, braques 


1. claws 


baleine f. 


whale 




appdt, amorce 


bait 


cachalot m. 


cachalot 




pecheur m. 


fisherman 


requin m. 


shark 




pec/ie f. 


fishery 


dauphin m. 


dolphin 




pecAe a Za %?ie 


angling 



OF REPTILES AND INSECTS. 



X 


XXIII. 


gnllon m. 


cricket 






perce-oreille m. 


ear-wig 


qrenouiUe f. 


frog 


&?z</?ze f. 


moth 


serpent m. 


serpent 


ciron m. 


hand-worm 


couleuvre f. 


adder 


fourmi f. 


ant 


vipere f. 


viper 


charangon m. 


weevil 


scorpion m. 


scorpion 


cloporte m. 


wood-louse 


aspic m» 


aspick 


ft'gwe m. 


tick 


basilic m. 


basilisk 


pott m. 


louse 


dragon m. 


dragon 


/ewfe f. 


nit 


tarentule f. 


tarantula 


pMce f. 


flea 


crapeau m. 


toad 


punaise f. 


bug 


lezard m. 


lizard 


chenille f. 


caterpillar 


sangsue f. 


leech 


papillon m. 


butterfly 


limace f. 


slug 


mouche f. 


fly 


t;er m. 


worm 


abeille f. 


bee 


ver-luisant m. 


glow-worm 


frelon m. 


hornet 


ver-coquin m. 


vine-grub 


bourdon m. 


drone 


t?er a soie m. 


silk- worm 


gwepe f. 


wasp 


escargot m. 


snail 


faora m. 


oxfly 


escarbot m. 


beetle 


cousin m. 


gnat 



D 2 



58 



VOCABULARY* 



cantharide f. 
hannelon m. 
sauterelle f. 
dgale f. 

araignee f. 
to He d' araignee 



Spanish-fly 

cockchafer 

grass-hopper 

balm-cricket 

spider 

cobweb 



essaim d'abeilles swarm of bees 
miel m, honey 

cire f. wax 

rayon de miel m. honeycomb 
ruche f. hive 

fourmiliere f. ant-hill 



OF MEATS AND DRINKS. 



XXXIV. 



nourriture f. 


nourishment 


alimens* m.pl. 


food 


vivres m. pi. 


victuals 


provision f. 


provision 


repas m. 


meal 


dejeuner m. 


breakfast 


diner m. 


dinner 




J" afternoon's 
\ luncheon 


g outer m. 


souper m. 


supper 


collation f. 


collation 


/est in m. 


feast 


?%«/ m. 


treat 


pam m. 


bread 


croute f. 


crust 


?r«e f. 


crumb 


farine f. 


meal 


sora m. 


bran 


pafe f. 


dough 


levain m. 


leaven 


morceau m. 


bit, morsel 


tranche f. 


slice 


bouchee f. 


mouthful 


viande f. 


meat 


bouilli m. 


boiled meat 


rd£, roft' m. 


roast meat 


bceufm. 


beef 


XXXV. 


mouton m. 


mutton 


agneau m. 


lamb 



veaw m. 


veal 


pore m. 


pork 


venaison f. 


venison 


volatile f. 


fowls 


gibier m. 


game 


</2<?o2 m. 


a leg of mutton 


andouilles* f. pi. chitterlings 


sauscisses* f. pi. sausages 


jambon m. 


ham 


/«r<i m, 


bacon 


moutarde f. 


mustard 


soupe f. 


soup 


potage m. 


pottage 


bouillon m. 


broth 


consomme m. 


jelly broth 


ragout m. 


ragout 


fricassee f. 


fricassee 


^ws m. 


gravy 


5a wee f. 


sauce 


poisson m. 


fish 


salade f. 


salad 


se/ m. 


salt 


Awz7e f. 


oil 


vinaigre m« 


vinegar 


XXXVI. 


wery'tts m, 


verjuice 


anchois m. 


anchovies 


epiees f. pi. 


spices 


poivre m. 


pepper 


gingembre m. 


ginger 


muscade f. 


nutmeg 


meets m. 


mace 





VOCABULARY. 




?!r JJ m * (c,OMS } cloves 


beurre m. 
/## m. 


butter 
milk 


cannelle f. 


cinnamon 


creme f. 


cream 


oublies* f. pi. 


thin cakes 


02w/*m. 


egg 


sucre m. 


sugar 


coo^e f. 


shell 


cassonade f. 


moist sugar 


blanc m. 


white 


dessert m. 


dessert 


jaune m. 


yolk 


yhtt* m. 


fruit 


boisson f. 


drink 


joa^e m. 


pie 


liqueur f. 


liquor 


gateau m. 


cake 


*Mm. 


tea 


tourte, tarte f. 


tart 


co/e m. 


coffee 


biscuit m. 


biscuit 


chocolat m. 


chocolate 


macaron m. 


macaroon 


Umonade f. 


lemonade 


crepes m. pi. 


pancakes 


ponclie m. 


punch 


confiture f. 


sweetmeats 


vm m. 


wine 


<?e/ee f. 


J ell y 


oieVe f. 


beer 


marmelade f. 


marmelade 


eau-de-vie f. 


brandy 


conserve f. 


conserve 


nectar m. 


nectar 


tablettes f. pl.f 


lozenges 


ambroisie f. 


ambrosia 


dragees f. pi. 


sugar-plumbs 


cac?re m. 


cyder 






poire m. 


perry 


XXX 


hgdromel m. 


mead 






sir op m. 


syrup 


pralines f. pi. 


crisp-almonds 


Zie f . 


drugs 


fromage m. 


cheese 







59 



OF THE DRESS, APPAREL, &C. 



XXXVIII. 



habillement m. 
hardes f. pi. 
habit m. 
veste f. ja- 

quette\ f. 
gilet m. 
manches f. pi. 
poches f. pi. 
bouton m. 
doublure f. 
couture f. 



dress 

clothes 

a suit of clothes 

>- jacket 

waistcoat 

sleeves 

pockets 

button 

lining 

seam 



culotte f. 
gousset m. 
drap m. 
soze f. 
velours m. 
serge f. 
oasiw m. 
flanelle f. 
e7o/fe f. 
manteau m. 
surtout m. 
redingote f. 
7m</e m. 



breeches 

fob 

cloth 

silk 

velvet 

surge 

dimity 

flannel 

stuff 

cloak 

surtout 

riding- coat 

linen 



Carmagnole or justaucorps, implies the same meaning as veste. 



eg 


VOCABULARY. 




toile f. 


linen-cloth 


mitaines* f. pi 


mittens 


batiste f. 


cambric 


tabller m. 


apron 


mousseline f. 


muslin 


mules* f. pi. 


1_ ,.. 


/m<m m. 


lawn 


pantoufles^.pir 


c/< emise f. 


shirt 


bague f. 


ring 


^'afro* m. 


frill 


bijou m. 


jewel 


chemisette f. 


dress-front 






cravate f. 


cravat 




XL. 


fozs* m. pi. 
chaussettes* f. p] 


stockings 
f under or half- 
' \ stockings 


bracelet m. 
dentelle f. 


bracelet 
lace 




blonde f. 


blond lace 


XXX 


eventail m. 


fan 






manchon m. 


muff 


jarretieres f. pi. 


garters 


agrafe f. 


clasp 


/a?«e f. 


wool 


epingle f- 


pin 


^ffl. 


thread 


aiguille f. 


needle 


cofora m. 


cotton 


eifaz m. 


case 


maille f. 


stitch 


<fe m. 


thimble 


frow m. 


hole 


masque m. 


mask 


chaussons* m. pi. socks 


voz'/e m. 


veil 


guetres* f. pi. 


spatterdashes 


tabatidre f. 


snuff-box 


souliers* m, pi. 


shoes 


tabac m. 


snuff 


escarpins* m. pi 


. pumps 


tabac (a fumer] 


)mtobacco 


semelle f. 


sole 


bourse f. 


purse 


Z>oto* f. pi. 


boots 


argent m. 


money 


boucles* f. pi. 


buckles 


porte-feuille m. 


pocket-book 


cmiV m. 


leather 


ciseaux m. pi. 


scissars 


ohapeau m. 


hat 


crayon m. 


pencil 


perruque f. 


wig 


mouchoir m. 


handkerchief 


j»wpe f. 


petticoat 


lunettes f. pi. 


spectacles 


jupon m. 


under petticoat 


lorgnette, f. 


spying-glass 


sa£m m. 


satin 


consents f. pi. 


preserves 


taffetas m. 


taffety 


bouquet m. 


nosegay 


#aze f. 


gauze 


cawrce f. 


cane 


coiffure f. 


head-dress 


cordon m. 


string 


co^fe f. 


hood 


epee f. 


sword 


collier m. 


necklace 


montre f. 


watch 


boucles d'oreilles~) 


6o& f. 


box 


f. pi.* 


,>ea,i-iiiig& 


chaine f. 


chain 


gants* m. pi. 


gloves 







VOCABULARY. 



61 



OF A HOUSE AND FURNITURE. 



XLI. 



maison f. 

hdtel m. 

hotellerie f. 
chateau m. 
palais m. 
couronne f. 
trone m. 
sceptre m. 
ai7e f. 

pavilion m. 
fondemens* m.pl. 
wim?' m. muraille f. 
bdtiment m. 
materiaux m. pi, 
pierre f. 
brique f. 
mortier m. 
chaux f. 
pldtre m. 
ciment m. 
tae7e f. 
ardoise f. 
charpente f. 
poutre f. 
so/ire f. 
echelle f. 
care f. 
ce/fter m. 



house 

{nobleman's 
house 
inn 
castle 
palace 
crown 
throne 
sceptre 
wing 
pavilion 
foundation 
wall 
building 
materials 
stone 
brick 
mortar 
lime 
plaster 
cement 
tile 
slate 

timber-work 
beam 
joist 
ladder 
vault 
cellar 



XLII. 



tonneau m. 
futaille f. 
boutique f. 
atelier m. 
mag asin m. 
vestibule m. 
saflle f. safoft m. 
escalier m. 
q#?ce m. 
cuisine f. 



cask 

a wine vessel 

shop 

work-shop 

warehouse 

hall 

parlour, saloon 

stairs 

office 

kitchen 



garde-manger m.f store-room 
boulangerie f. bake-house 



brasserie f. 


brew-house 


lingerie f. 


laundry 


ecurie f. 


stable 


remise f. 


coach-house 


pi«Ys m. 


well 


efo#e m. 


story 


appartement m. 


apartment 


chambre f. 


room 


antichambre f. 


antechamber 



sa//e a manger f. dining-room 

sa/oft c?e cowiO ■• 

y drawing-room 
pagnie m. J & 

cabinet de toi-^\ * 

toe m. jdressmg-room 

"r f." C ° M "}t>ed-roora 
galerie f. gallery 

cabinet m. closet 

boudoir m. lady's closet 

garde-robesi m. wardrobe 



por^e f. 


door 


porte-cochere f. 


gate 


sezzi7 m . 


threshold 


jalousie f. 


blind 


g'o/ic? m. 


hinge 


marteau m. 


knocker 


serrure f. 


lock 


clei.clefi. 


key 


verrou m. 


bolt 


fenetre f. 


window 


v^re f. 


glass 


vo/e£ m. 


shutter 


balcon m. 


balcony 


store m. 


shade 


grenier m. 


garret 


£oi£ m. 


roof 


gouttiere f. 


gutter 


??zc//e f. 


trunk 


&o2te f. 


box 


eaisse f. 


chest 


cassette f. 


casket 


cn$re m. 


coffer 



In the plural, des garde-manger. 



X In the plural, des garde-robes 



r>2 


VOCABULARY. 




logement m. 


lodging 




XL IV. 


ameublemeut m 


. furniture 






bande de ehe- 


v chimney-piece 


parquet m. 


inlaid fiooi 


minee\ f. 


plafond m. 


ceiling 


cheminee f. 


chimney 


lambris m. 


wainscot 


dtre m ,/bf/er m. hearth 


cloison f. 


partition 


soufflet m. 


pair of bellows 


tapisserie f. 


hangings 


peZ/e f. 


shovel 


tapz's m. 


carpet 






/i7 m. 


bed 


XL 


alcove f. 


alcove 






chalitX m. 


bedstead 


coqucmar m. 


boiler 


chevet m. 


bolster 


pincettes f. pi. 


tongs 


oreiller m. 


pillow 


fourgon m. 


poker 


paillasse f. 


straw-bed 


garde-cendre m. fender 


matelas m- 


mattress 


bouilloire f. 


kettle 


draps* m. pi 


sheets 


couvercle m. 


lid 


couvertures* 


f. pLbed-clothes 


poe/e f. 


frying-pan 


courte-pointe 


f. counterpane 


poelon m. 


skillet 


rideau m. 


curtain 


casserole f. 


saucepan 


tringle f. 


curtain-rod 


foumeau m. 


stove 


anneau m. 


ring 


allumette f. 


match 


so/am. 


sofa 


pierre a fusil f 


. Hint 


fauteuil m. 


elbow-chair 


briquet m. 


steel 


st^e m. 


seat 


^wr m. 


oven 


chaise f. 


chair 


cZom m. 


nail 


coussin m. 


cushion 


essuie-main m. 


towel 


armoire f. 


press, cup-board 


bassinoire f. 


warming-pan 


commode f. 


chest of drawers 


panier m. 


V basket 


trumeau m. 


pier-glass 


corbeiile f. 


toilette f. 


toilet 


faience f. 


del f- ware 


miroir m. 


looking-glass 


poterie f. 


earthen-ware 






po£ m. 


pot 




XLV. 


cruche f. 


pitcher 






lampe f. 


lamp 


peigne m. 


comb 


lanterne f. 


lanthorn 


pommade f. 


pomatum 


savon m. 


soap 


poudre f. 


powder 


amidon m. 


starch 


houppe f. 


puff 


&«/#£ m. 


broom 


parfum m. 


perfume 


6awc m. 


bench 


tableau m. 


picture 


tabouret m. or"l „,,_! 


dessin m. 


drawing 


escabeau m. 


>SIUU1 


color is m. 


colouring 


plancher m. 


floor 


portrait m. 


portrait 


porcelaine f. 


china-ware 


pay sage m. 


landscape 


marchepied m. 


footstool 


miniature f. 


miniature 



t In the familiar style instead of chambranle, mantle-piece. 
j 5ois cte fo'tf is more frequently used than chalit. 





VOCABULARY. 


63 


chandelier m. candlestick 


cuiller f. or cuil 


> spoon 


bobeche f. 


socket 


lere f. 


chandeUe f. 


candle 


carafon m. 


small decanter 


bougie f. 


wax-light 


flacon m. 


flaggon 


cire f. 


wax 


saliere f. 


salt-ceLar 


mouchettes 


'. pi. snuffers 


hu'dier m. 


oil-cruet 


porte-mou- 


"1 snuffer-pan or 
J stands 


moutardier m. 


mustard-pot 


chettes m 


aiguihe f. 


ewer 


eteignoir m. 


extinguisher 


coupe f. fosse f 


cup 


vergettes f. 
brosse f. 


P L |brush 


gobelet m. 


J" goblet ortum- 
1 bier 


6w/fe£ m. 


cup-board 


rerre m. 


glass 


cabaret m. 


tea-board 


bouteille f. 


bottle 


fosse f. 


cup 


bouchon m. 


cork 


soucoupe f. 


saucer 


tire-bouchon m 


cork-screw 


theiere f. 


tea-pot 


carafe f. 


decanter 


cafetiere f. 


coffee-pot 


bibliotheque f. 


library 


chocolatiere 


f. chocolate-pot 


bureau m. 


bureau 


sucrier m. 


sugar-bason 


ftVozr m. 


drawer 


^afte f. 


bowl 


cachet m. 


seal 






/eftre f. 


letter 




XLVI. 


enveloppe f. 


cover 


fo&/e f. 


table 


adresse f. 


f direction of 
I a letter 


nappe f. 


cloth 


signature f. 


signature 


serviette f. 


napkin 


sonnette f. 


bell 


assiette f. 


plate 


estampe f. 


cut, print 


/?Zatf m. 


dish 


meda'dle f- 


medal 


couteau m. 


knife 


pain-d-cachetei 


wafer 


fourchette f. 


fork 








O F A 


CITY. 






XLVII. 


obelisque m. 


obelisk 






pare m. 


pavement 


wz'Z/e f. 


town, city- 


ruisseau m. 


kennel, brook 


village m. 


village 


marche m. 


market 


Z>oz*r# m. 


borough 


denrees* f. pi. 


provisions 


rwe f. 


street 


boucherie f. 


meat-market 


carrefour m. 


cross-way 


poissonneric f. 


fish-market 


passage m. 
p/ace f. 


passage 
square 


friperie f. 


J frippery, old 
^ clothes 


n*e7/e f. 


blind-lane 


edifice m. 


edifice 


pyr amide f. 


pyramid 


facade f. 


front 



64 



VOCABULARY. 



frontispice m. 
colonne f. 
pilastre m. 
base f. 
piedestal m. 
statue f. 
arcade f. 
portique m. 
cul-de-sac m. 
aqueduc m. 
eWme m. 



frontispiece 

column 

pilaster 

base 

pedestal 

statue 

arcade 

portico or piazza 

no thoroughfare 

aqueduct 

dome 



XLVIII. 

paroisse f. parish 

comedie f. play-house 

theatre m. stage 

coulisses f. pi. scenery 
decorations f. pi. decorations 
curtain 
j tiring-room, 



fc«7e f. 

/oyer m. 

orchestre m 
parterre m. 



\ green-room 

orchestra 

pit 

box 



XLIX 



Zo<7£ f. 

amphitheatre m. first gallery 

paradis m. upper gallery 



Mfe£ m 
couvent m. 
monastere m. 
cellule f. 
hermitage m. 
solitude f. 
retraite f. 
universite f. 
college m. 
eco/e f. 
pension f. 
parlement m. 



ticket 

convent 

monastery 

cell 

hermitage 

solitude 

retirement 

university 

college 

school 

boarding-school 

parliament 



/# Chambre des~\ TT r T , 

P^iVs j> House of Lords 

/a Chambre des\ House of Com- 

Deputes J mons 
prison f. prison 

cachot m. dungeon 

hopital m. hospital 



affiche f. 
infirmerie f. 
taveme f. 
cabaret m. 
auberge f. 
c^/e m. 
enseigne f. 
annonce f. 
po/^ m. 
arcAe f. 
pilier m. 
bateau m. 
o/wai m. 
bourse f. 
banque f. 
agiotage m. 
douane f. 
posfe f. 
petite poste f. 
tresorerie f. 
amiraute f. 
arsenal m. 
faubourg m. 
boulevards* m.pl. 
remparts* m. pi. 
barriere f. 
guingette f. 
jfor^e f. 
verrerie f. 
fonderie f. 



bill 

infirmary 

tavern 

public-house 

inn 

colFee-house 

sign, board 

advertisement 

bridge 

arch 

pillar 

boat 

quay 

exchange 

bank 

stock-jobbing 

custom-house 

general-post 

penny-post 

treasury 

admiralty 

arsenal 

suburb 

bulwarks 

ramparts 

turnpike 

tea-garden 

forge 

glass-house 

foundery 



L. 



voiture publique \ 



diligence f. 
carrosse m. 
voiture f. 
imperiale f. 
portiere f. 
glaces* f. pi. 
fa'wiOft m. 
rowe f. 
essieu m. 
equipage m. 
harnois m. pi. 
rewes f. pi. 



} stage-coach 

I coach, carriage 

roof 

door 

windows 

coach-pole 

wheel 

axle-tree 

equipage 

harness 



VOCABULARY. 



65 



bride f. 


bridle 


fiacre m. 


hackney-coach 


licou m 


halter 


charrette f. 


cart 


selle f . 


saddle 


four g on m. 


waggon 


bat m. 


pack-saddle 


remise f. 


coach-house 


arcon m , 


saddle-bow 


rasoir m. 


razor 


sangle f. 


girth 


cuir hi. 


scrap 


etriers* m. pi. 


stirrups 


wiowZe m. 


mould 


eperons* m. pi. 


spurs 


machine f. 


machine 


berline f. 


berlin 


moulin m. 


mill 


cabriolet m. 


curricle, fly 


interieur 


inside 


chaise f. 


chaise 


exttrieur 


outside f 



OF TRADES, ARTS, PROFESSIONS, &C. 



LI. 



boulajiger m. 
barbier m. 
forgeron m. 
relieur m. 
libraire m. 
chaudronnier m. 
brasseur m. 
boucher m. 
ebeniste m. 
charpentier m. 
charron m. 
sculpteur m. 
chimiste m. 
carrossier m. 
confiseur m. 
tonnelier m. 
corroyeur m. 
coutelier m. 
fourbisseur m. 
teinturier m. 
distillateur m. 
droguiste m, 
pharmacien m. 



baker 

barber 

blacksmith 

book-binder 

bookseller 

brazier 

brewer 

butcher 

cabinet-maker 

carpenter 

cartwright 

sculptor 

chemist 

coach-maker 

confectioner 

cooper 

currier 

cutler 

sword-cut] er 

dyer 

distiller 

druggist 

apothecary. 



graveur m. 
marechal m. 
poissonnier m. 
fondeur m. 
fruitier m. 
fourreur m. 
jardinier m. 
doreur m. 
verrier m. 
vitrier m. 
gantier m. 
orfevre m. 
epicier m. 
armurier m. 



chapelier m. 
aubergiste m. 
joaillier m. 
menuisier m. 
serrurier m. 
macon m. 

couturiere f. 



engraver 

farrier 

fishmonger 

founder 

fruiterer 

furrier 

gardener 

gilder 

glass -maker 

glazier 

glover 

goldsmith 

grocer 

armourer 

LII. 

hatter 

innkeeper 

jeweller 

joiner 

locksmith 

bricklayer 
fmantua-maker 
\ sempstress 



t In France the outside of a stage coach is named Za banquette, V imperials, and 
ta rotonde ; the inside is known under the names of V interieur, le coupe. 



66 



VOCABULARY. 



maitre d'hotel m. 

mercier m. 

meunier m. 
peintre m. 
pdtissier m. 
paveur m. 
colpGrteur m. 
parfumeur m. 
medecin m. 
pldtrier m. 
plombier m. 
blanchisseuse f. 
potier m. 
imprimeur m. 
se/ft'er m. 
lingere f. 
ccrdonnier m. 



steward 

f mercer, haber- 

l dasher 
miller 
painter 
pastry-cook 
paviour 
pedlar 
perfumer 
physician 
plasterer 
plumber 
washing-woman 
potter 
printer 
sadler 
sempstress 
shoe-maker 



pelletier m. 
forgeron m. 
chirurgien m. 
arpenteur m. 
tailleur m. 
tanneur m. 
bijoutier m. 
tourneur m. 
entrepreneur m 
tapissier m. 

horloger m. 

tisserand m. 
perruquier m 
ouvrage m. 
ouvrier m. 
ouvriere f. 



skinner 

smith 

surgeon 

surveyor 

tailor 

tanner 

toy-man 

turner 

undertaker 

upholsterer 
f watch or clock 
\ maker 

weaver 

wig-maker 

work 

workman 

workwoman 



OF THE COUNTRY, HUSBANDRY, FLOWERS, TREES, &C. 





LIIL 


enclos m. 
chateau m. 


campagne f. 


country 


ferre f. 


chemin m. 


way 


cowr f. 


sender m. 


footpath 


basse-cour f. 


6owe f. 


mud 


colombier m. 


fange f. 


mire 


laiterie f. 


poussiere f. 


dust 


ecwn'e f. 


bourbier m. 


slough 


fruiterie f. 


orniere f. 


cart-rut 


jar din m. 


hameau m. 


hamlet 


jardinage m. 



close 

castle 

estate 

yard 

poultry-yard 

pigeon-house 

dairy 

stable 

fruit-loft 

garden 

gardening 



fleuriste m. 
parterre m. 
^/Zewr f. 
*m f . 

primevere f. 
narcisse m. 
jacinthe f. 
ta&pe f. 



OF FLOWERS. 




florist 


viclette f. 


violet 


parterre 
flower 


pensee f. 


J pansey, 
^heartsease 


crocus 


marguerite f. 


daisy 


cowslip 


imperiale f. 


Turk's cap 


narcissus 


martagon m. 


mountain lily 


hyacinth 


Zts m. 


lily 


tulip 







VOCABULARY. 



67 



LIV. 



plate-bande f. 
muguet m. 
oreiUe-d'ours f. 
anemone f. 
renoncule f. 
jonquille f. 
giroflee f. 
cezY/ez 1 m. 

campanule f. ~) 
gantelee f. J 
rose f. 

jasmin m. jasmine 

tubereuse f. tuberose 

chevre-feuille m. honeysuckle 
seringat m. seringa 

ZzYas m. lilach 

soz/cz m. marigold 

amaranthe f. amaranth 



flower-border 

may-lily 

auricula 

anemone 

ranunculus 

jonquil 

stock, gilliflower 

carnation, pink 

-bell-flower 

rose 



pavot m. 
coquelicot m. 
ponceau m. 
o/z/ez 4 m. oar' 

oeaw m. 
tournesol m. 
camomille f. 
helle-de-nuit f. 
eiemelle f. 
immortelle f. 
balsamine f. 
ancolie f. 
passe-rose f, 
hepatique f. 
pied-d'alouette 
pivoine f. 
scabieuse f. 
julienne f. 
planche f. 
arrosoir m. 



poppy 



^blue-bottle 

turnsol 
camomile 
great nightshade 

Icassidony 

balsam 
columbine 
hollyhock 
hepatica 
miarkspur 
peony 
scabious 
rocket 
bed 
watering-pot. 



LV. 



amande f. 


almond 


pomme f. 


apple 


abricot m. 


apricot 


cerz'se f. 


cherry 


guigne f. 


f small black 
\ cherry 


chdtaigne f. 


chesnut 


mar r on m. 


large chesnut 


groseilles* f. pi. 


currants 


groseille f. 


gooseberry 


J^zze f. 


fig 


aveline f. 


filberts 


raisin m. 


grapes 


prune f 


plum 


reine-claude f. 


greengage 


citron m. 


lemon 


onanas m. 


pine apple 



OF FRUITS. 






rc^/Ze f. 


medlar 




mefo/z m. 


melon 




mzzre f. 


mulberry 




brugnon m. 


nectarine 




noisette f. 


hazel-nut 




orange f. 


orange 


ack 


pecAe f., 


peach 




pozre f. 


pear 




citrouille f. 


pumpkin 


nut 


cozVz m. 


quince 




framboise f. 


raspberry 




fraise f. 


strawberry 




?zoz.r f. 


walnut 




epine-vinette f 


barberries 




grenade f. 


pomegranate 




o/z*z;e f. 


olive 




cerneaux m. 


kernel of walnut 




gratte-cidi m. 


^f hip, a berry from 
L the sweei-briar 



* Currants are called in French, black, red, and yellow currants, groseulcs 
noires or cassis, groseilles rouges, et groseilles jaunes. 
f In the plural, t/es gratte-cul. 



68 



VOCABULARY. 



OF HERBS AND PLANTS. 



LVI. 



topinambour m 

aloes m. 
angelique f. 
artichaut m. 
asperge f. 
melisse I. 
basilic m. 
yere f. 
"haricot m. 
poiree f. 
betterave f. 
bourrache f. 
bardane f. 
pimprenette f. 
c/k)M m. 
carotte f. 
ce7m m. 
cerfeuil m. 
choux-fleurs 

*m. pi. 
mdches f. £1. 
cresson m. 
concombre m. 
dent-de-lion m. 
patience f. 
chicoree f. 
Jenouil m. 
fougere f. 
ai7 m. 
calebasse f. 
cu/tti' f. 
Aerfo f. 
raifort m. 
joubarbe f. 
#erre m. 



{Jerusalem arti- 
choke 
aloe 

angelica 
artichoke 
asparagus 
balm 
basil 
bean 

french-bean 
beet 

beet-root 
borage 
burdock 
burnet 
cabbage 
carrot 
celery- 
chervil 

> cauliflowers 

corn-salad 

cresses 

cucumber 

dandelion 

dock 

endive 

fennel 

fern 

garlic 

gourd 

hemlock 

herb 

horse-radish 

house-leek 

ivy 



LVII. 



ZazVwe f. 
reglisse f. 
mauve f. 
guimauve f. 
marjolaine f. 
reseda m. 
menthe f. 
</z« m. 
mousse f. 
moutarde f. 
capucine f. 
orft'e f. 
ognon m. 
persil m. 
panais m. 
po/s m. 
parietaire f. 
plante f. 
plantain m. 
pomme de terre i 
courge f. 
pourpier m. 
rave f. 
race's m. 
roseau m. 
rwe f. 
jVmc m. 
rhubarbe f. 
safran m. 
saw^e f. 
sarriette f. 
ciboule f. 
echalote f. 
sensitive f. 



lettuce 
liquorice 
mallows 
marsh-mallows 
marjoram 
mignionette 
mint 
misletoe 
moss 
mustard 
nasturtium 
nettle 
onion 
parsley- 
parsnip 
peas 
pellitory 
plant 
plantain 
. potato 
pumkin 
purslain 
radish 

Spanish radish 
reed 
rue 
rush 
rhubarb 
saffron 
sage 
savory 
scallion 
shallot 
sensitive-plant 



7<? f . 
poireau m. 



truffle, pig-nut 
leek 



LVIII. 



osei/Ze f. 
veronique f. 
epinards m. pi. 
tanaisie f. 
ivraie f. 
estragon m. 



sorrel 

speedwell 

spinage 

tansey 

tare 

stragan 



VOCABULARY. 



69 



chardon m. 
thym m. 
serpolet m. 
trifle m. 
navet m. 
valeriane f. 



thistle 

thyme 

wild thyme 

trefoil 

turnip 

valerian 



vegetaux m. pi. vegetables 

legumes m. pi. veg. greens 

verveine f. vervain 

absinthe f. wormwood 

mille-feuilles f. yarrow 



OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 



abricotier m. 


apricot tree 




ar&re m. 


tree 




arbrisseau m. 


shrub 


"fow.r m. 


ecorce f. 


bark 


ft7/ett? m. 


branche f. 


branch 


mi/rte m. 


feuVJe f. 


leaf 


cAewe m. 


grains f. 


seed 


osier m. 


rejeton m. 


sucker 


romarin m. 


arbousier m. 


arbutus 


eglantier m. 


/mze m. 


ash tree 


^p27J0 f. 


tremble m. 


aspin 


buisson m. 


''hetre m. 


beech tree 


aubepine f. 


bouleau m. 


birch tree 


vigwe f. 


6 wis m. 


box 


sawZe m. 


<7ew& m. 


broom 


ifm. 


sureaa m. 


elder tree 


cognassier m 


o?'me m. 


elm 


figuier m. 


sapm m. 


fir tree 


woz/er m. 


coudrier m. 


hazel tree 


oranger m. 


cerisier m, 


cherry tree 


pecker m. 


chdtaignier m. 


chesnut tree 


pommier m. 


citronnier m. 


lemon tree 


poirier m. 


amandier m. 


almond-tree. 


prunier m. 



LIX. 

holly 
lime tree 
myrtle tree 
oak 
osier 
rosemary 
sweet-briar 
thorn 

thorn-bush 
white-thorn 
vine 

willow tree 
yew tree 
quince tree 
fig tree 
walnut tree 
orange tree 
peach tree 
apple tree 
pear tree 
plum tree 



PROMISCUOUS WORDS. 



grange f. 
Aufte f. 
chaumiere f. 
seigneurie f. 
c/wwe f. 



barn 

hut 

thatched-house 

manor 

tithe 



metairie f. farm 

si//ow m. ridge, furrow 

pre m. prairie f. meadow 
arpent m. acre 

fosse m. ditch 



70 



VOCABULARY. 



champ m. 


field 


betail m. 


cattle 


pdturage m. 


pasture-ground 


f under m. 


dung 


terroir m. 


soil 


terreau m. 


mould 


pare m. 


park 


recolte f. 


crop 


"haie f. 


hedge 


moisson f. 


harvest 


bruyere f. 


heath 


vendange f. 


vintage 


/awafe f. 


waste land 


"houblon m. 


hops 


commune f. 


common 


#r«m m. 


corn 


plaine f. 


plain 


6/e m. 


wheat 


garenne f. 


warren 


or#e m. 


barley 


fondriere f. 


bog 


avoine f. 


oats 


G?W?2eS f. pi. 


downs 


nz m. 


rice 






seigle m. 


rye 




LX. 


7W*7/e£ m. 


millet 


marais m. 


marsh 


/m m. 
chanvre m. 


fiax 

hemp 

hemp-seed 






serre f. 
serre-chaude f. 


green-house 
hot-house 


chenevis m. 


boulingrin m. 


bowling-green 




LXI. 


berceau m. 


bower 






bosquet m. 


grove 


epi m. 


ear (of corn) 


gro#e f. 


grotto 


<7er6e f. 


sheaf (of corn) 


vignoble m. 


vineyard 


ft^e f. 


stalk 


pepiniere f. 


nursery (trees) 


tuyau m. 


blade 


fcwZ/is m. 


coppice-wood 


j?az7/e f. 


straw 


"hallier m. 


thicket 


chaume m. 


stubble 


pay sage m. 


landscape 


/om m. 


hay 


perspective f. 


prospect 


four rage m. 


fodder 


uwe f- 


view 


fermier m. 


farmer 


cascade f. 


cascade 


pay sun m. 


peasant 


canal m. 


canal 


laboureur m 


ploughman 


agriculture f. 


agriculture 


moissonneur 


m. reaper 


labourage m. 


tillage 


fauckeur m. 


mower 


bocage m. 


grove. 


berger m. 


shepherd 



OF METALS, &C. 



or m. 


gold 


similor m. 


pinchbeck 


argent m. 


silver 


a /er m. 


iron 


vlatine m. 
Diet. 


Vplatma 


j?/ d'archal m. 
«C2er m. 


wire 

steel 


vermeil m. 


silver-gilt 


fer-blanc m. 


iron-tinned 


cuivre m. 


copper 


efam m. 


pewter 


airain m. 


brass 


plomb m. 


lead 


Ztfzfow nu 


latten-wire 


mercure m. 


mercury 


bronze m. 


bronze 


vif-argent m. 


quicksilver 



VOCABULARY. 




Ul. 


alun m. 


alum 




couperose f. 


copperas 


sulphur 


vitriol m. 


vitriol 


nitre 


car mm m. 


carmine 


saltpetre 


pastel m, 


pastal 


bitumen 


ocre f. 


ochre 


antimony- 


vermilion m. 


red-lead 


arsenic 







71 







OF COLOURS, 




orange m. 
blanc m. 


orange colour 
white 


rouge m. 
jaune m. 


red 
yellow 


noir m. 


black 




6rzm m. 


brown 


6Zew m. 
rertf m. 


blue 
green 




pourpre m. 
ecarlate f. 


purple 

scarlet 


gns m 


grey 




indigo m. 


indigo 




OF 


PRECK 


5US STONES. 




diamant m. 
topaze f. 


diamond 
topaz 




amethyste f. 
cornaline f. 


amethyst 
cornelian 


emeraude f. 
saphir f. 
escarboucle f. 


emerald 
sapphire 
carbuncle 




0^?/^; m. 
agathe f. 
corail m. 


onyx 
agate 
coral 


r«6w m. 


ruby 




per/e f. 


pearl 



OF PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES. 



LXIII. 

Abyssinia 
Germany 
England 
Aiabia 
Barbary 
Bengal 

Biledulgerid m. Biledulgerid 
Boheme f. Bohemia 



Bresil m. 


Brazil 


Caffrerie f. 


Caffraria 


Canada m. 


Canada 


Caroline f. 


Carolina 


C7«7i m. 


Chili 


Cfcwe f. 


China 


Dancmarck m. 


Denmark 


Ecosse f. 


Scotland 


jE?g#pfe f. 


Egvpt 


Espagne f. 


Spain 



72 


VOCABULARY. 


1 


Ethiopie f. 


Ethiopia 


Monoemugi m. 


Monoemugi 


France f. 


France 


Nigritie f. 


Migritia 


Georgie f. 


Georgia 


Norwege f. 


Norway 


Guiane f. 


Guiana 


Paraguay m. 


Paraguay 


Guinee f. 


Guinea 


Pensylvanie f. 


Pennsylvania 


Hollande f. 


Holland 


Perou m. 


Peru 


Hongrie t'. 


Hungary 


Perse f. 


Persia 


/wrfe f. 


India 


Pologne f. 


Poland 


Irlande f. 


Ireland 


Portugal m . 


Portugal 


JfoZze f. 


Italy 


Prusse f. 


Prussia 


Jama'tque f. 


Jamaica 


Russie f. 


Russia 


Japon m. 


Japan 


£*. Domingue m.St. Domingo 






>SWde f. 


Sweden 




LXIV. 


Suisse f . 


Switzerland 






Tar tar ie f. 


Tartary 


/<es Pays-Pas 


m. the Netherlands 


Turquie f. 


Turkey 


Malabar m. 


Malabar 


Virginie f. 


Virginia 


Maryland m. 


Maryland 


Zaara, m. 


Zaara 


Mogol m. 


Mogul 


Zanguebar m. 


Zanguebar 


Monomotapa 


m. Monomotapa 







COMMON NATIONAL NAMES 



•4/Hcaira, e 
Allemand, e 
Americain, e 
Anglais, e 
Autrichien, ne 
Bohemien, ne 
Chinois, e 
Danois, e 
Ecossais, e 
Espagnol, e 
Flamand, e 
Francois m. e. f. 
Grec m. gwe f. 



£V. 


Hollandais, e 


Dutch 




Hongrois, e 


Hungarian 


African 


Irlandais, e 


Irish 


German 


Italien, ne 


Italian 


American 


Japonais, e 


Japanese 


English 


Lapon, ne 


Laplander 


Austrian 


Norwegien, ne 


Norwegian 


Bohemian 


Per s an, e 


Persian 


Chinese 


Polonais, e 


Pole 


Dane 


Portugais* e 


Portuguese 


Scotch 


Prussien, ne 


Prussian 


Spanish 


Russe m. & f. 


Russian 


Flemish 


Suedois, e 


Swede 


French 


Suisse, esse 


Swiss 


Greek 


Turc,m.2urqui 


f. Turkish, Turk 



SIGNS AND PUNCTUATION 73 



ORTHOGRAPHICAL FRENCH SIGNS 

AND PUNCTUATION. 

Besides the accents already mentioned page 3, 
there are some other signs frequently used in the 
French language, viz., the apostrophe, the cedilla, 
the dicBresis, and the hyphen ; as to the comma, 
semicolon, colon, period, interrogation, notes of 
admiration and exclamation, parenthesis, &c, they 
are the same in the French as in the English 
language; we therefore shall not say more of the 
punctuation. 

OF THE APOSTROPHE AND ELISION. 

The apostrophe (') marks the suppression of a 
vowel before another vowel or h mute, which is not 
sounded in the pronunciation, as V amour, the love, 
instead of le amour ; Vhistoire, the history, instead 
of la histoire ; Vestime, the esteem, instead of la 
estime, &c. 

Observations. 

1 . Eleven monosyllables admit of the apostrophe, 
viz., ce, de,je, la, le, me, ne, que, se, te, and si. 

Si requires the apostrophe only before il, Us, 
pronouns of the third person placed before the 
verbs. 

2. The apostrophe is used also after presque and 



/4 SIGxNS AND PUNCTUATION. 

entre 9 when in composition with another word 
beginning with a vowel, as 

Entr'acte, an interlude, "\ r Entre-acte. 

s'entf aider, to help one another, ' ^ J se entre-aider. 
entr'ouvrir, to half open, ? or } entre-ouvrir. 

presqu'ile, peninsula, J \ presque lie. 

Except the above cases, entre and presque keep 
the mute e 9 as in 

presque egal, very near equal. 

entre eux, entre eUes, between themselves. 

presque entier, almost the whole. 

Lorsque, when, puisque, since, quoique, although, 
que, that, require the apostrophe before the words 
elle, il 9 on, un 9 une, and in their compounds : as 

Lor squ' elle vient, when she comes, instead of lorsque elle. 

puisquHl Vaime, since he loves her, , puisque il la aime. 

quoiqu'on ait dit, though they may have said, quoique on. 

qu'unefemme soit vertueuse, let a woman be virtuous, que une. 

It is more elegant to say and to write quoique Von 
and si Von than quoiquon and si on ; this last ex- 
pression si on is particularly to be avoided on 
account of the hiatus. 

3. Jusque when followed immediately by a, an, 
ici 9 here, alors, then, aujourd'hui, to-day, requires 
also the apostrophe, as 



Jusqu'a 


till to 


jusqu'au 
jusquHci 
jusqu'alors 
jusqu'-a-aujourd 'hui 


till here 
till then 
till to-day ; 



and not jusqu 'aigourd liui, which is never said. 
Exceptions. — The apostrophe does not take place 



SIGNS AND PUNCTUATION. 75 

in le and la after the imperative mood, or after the 
adverb la, there : as 

gardez-le avec vous keep him with you. 

conduisez-la au bain take her to the bath. 

etait-elle Id avec lui was she there with him. 

The same rule must be observed with ce, de, le, la, 
que, before huit, eight, huitaine, eight days, hui- 
tihne, eighth, oui, yes, and onze, eleven, and its 
derivatives, as 

Le qui et le non the yes and the no. 

elle a dit que oui she said yes. 

U onze, le onzieme, la onzieme, the eleventh. 

4. Though the elision or the suppression of an 
ending vowel takes place only before another vowel 
or h mute (not sounded), we must, however, except 
the feminine adjective grande, great, which drops 
its final mute e before a certain class of substantives 
beginning with a consonant : as 



Grand' 'chere, good cheery r grande chere 

grand' chose, great thing ( j nstead Q Ag rande c \ ose 
grand'mere, grandmother/" j grande mere 

grandWue, large street J Kgrande rue 



CEDILLA. 



The cedilla (cedille c) is a kind of comma placed 
under c, giving to it the sound of s hard before a, 
o, u, as in facade, facpn, reca. 



DIURESIS. 



The diaeresis (") or trema are two little dots placed 
over the vowels e, z, u, to intimate that they are to 
be pronounced distinctly from the vowels by which 
they are accompanied, as in na-'ivete, saba-'isme, 



76 OF GENDER. 

Saul (proper name), cigue, hemlock, &c. ; i trtma 
is different in its application from the y, therefore 
it would be improper to write moien, citoien, instead 
of moyen, citoyen, 

HYPHEN. 

The hyphen [-] or tiret, is particularly used in 
connecting compound words; as in Belles-lettres, 
tout-puissant, chef-d'oeuvre, arc-en-ciel, &c. 



OF GENDER. 

The French language admits only of two genders, 
the masculine and the feminine, both in men and 
animals, as homme, man, lion, lion, are masculine, 
and femme, woman, lionne, lioness, are feminine. 
As there is no neuter in French, they have been 
obliged to apply the above generical distinction to 
inanimate objects, thus soleil, sun, livre, book, are 
masculine, lune, moon, table, table, are feminine. 
In this respect English people experience as much 
difficulty as the French for the use of shall and 
will. However, although we share the opinion of 
those who think that ear and practice alone are the 
most efficient masters for learning the genders in 
the French language, we cannot help laying down 
the following method, which has already been much 
approved of for its simplicity. 

Easy mode of distinguishing when a French Noun 
is masculine or feminine. 

General Rule. — As we have just stated, among 
living creatures, the males are of the masculine 



OF GENDER. 



77 



gender, and the females of the feminine ; thus 
hom?ne, boeuf, coq, &c, man, ox, cock, are mascu- 
line ; femme, vache, poule, &c, woman, cow, hen, 
are feminine. 

We must except from this rule reptiles, insects, 
fishes, and many wild birds and beasts, whose 
males and females are in French both masculine or 
both feminine. Thus for instance, morue, cod-fish, 
mouche, fly, hir middle, swallow, are both males and 
females of the feminine gender, and saumon, salmon, 
serpent, snake, moineau, sparrow, are males and 
females of the masculine gender. Their gender, 
like that of inanimate objects, is known by the 
termination of their names, as follows : 



MASCULINE TERMINATIONS. 

1. All nouns which end in a conso- 
nant and have any other final than 
x, eur, and ion, and also son, pre- 
ceded by a vowel, are masculine, as 
well as the words ending in 
*a as opera. 

te accen-" 



tuated not 
preceded 
by t, as in v 
2. i . . 
to . . 



pre, meadow. 



oubli, forgetfulness. 

echo. 

chapeau, hat. 

paysage, landscape. 

piege, snare. 

deluge, flood. 

obstacle. 

vulgaire, the rabble. 

royaume, kingdom. 

diademe. 

sophisme. 

atome. 

oratoire. 

chene, oak. 
and all adjectives and verbs substan- 
tively used, as le beau, le sublime, le 
boire, le manger, &c. 

Exceptions to the masculine. 
\.*Boisson, brebis, chair, chanson, clef, 



4. age 

5. ege 
Huge . 

6. acle , 

7. aire 

8. aume . 

9. erne . 
§isme . 

10. ome . 

11. oire . 
All trees 



FEMININE TERMINATIONS. 

1. All nouns which end in x, eur, 
ion, and also in son, preceded by a 
vowel, are feminine ; as well as 
those which end in 



2. ee ; 

3. te ace. 

4. ie 

5. ace 
*ance 

anse 

6. ence 
ense 

fade , 

7. ude , 

8. iere 

9. ure 

10. lie . , 

11. mme 

12. nne 

13. rre 

14. sse 

15. tte . 



,s armee. 
bonte, goodness. 
vie, life. 
grace. 

Xesperance, hope. 

j- patience. 

promenade, 
servitude, 
riviere. 

blessure, wound. 
chandelle. 
pomme, apple 
canne. 
terre, earth 



patte, paw. 



Exceptions to the feminine. 

1. x: choix, crucifix, flux, reflux, prix. 

in eur : bonheur, chceur, cceur, des- 
honneur, honneur, labeur, malheur, 
pleurs, interieur, exterieur, equateur, 
chou-fleur, secteur, and a few technical 
terms. 



* The figures prefixed to the exceptions correspond to the same numbers in the 
foregoing termination table. 



78 



OF GENDER. 



. >nfl to Ma>cu;ine Terminations. 

cour, cuiller, cuisson. dent, dot. 
faim, f \ hart, lecon, main, 

maman, mer. moiisox, mort, mousson, 
nef, nuit, part, rancon, soif, a 
tour*, vis. 

. four mi, parol, 

apres-midi. 
3. Eau. bru, glu, peau, tribu, vertu. 
:?, image, page*, rage, nage, 
plage. 

5. Allege, drege, Xoricege. 

6. Bernac' 

7. Grammaire. a f aire, aire, chair e, 
circulaire, h.aire, perpendiculaire, 
paire, annulaire. 

S. Paume. 

9. Creme, bireme. Boheme, breme. 

10. Drome. 

11. Gl:ire. 

nage: :. poire, racloire. 

X.B. — Tie words vrhieh end in a, 
e, o, ege, acle, aume, a me, aire, admit 
of a very fevr exceptions. 

a. o. and e not preceded by a t, uge, 
. me, have no exception. 



ms to Feminine Terminations, 
in ion : uteri 

lion, camion, chorion, croupion, /anion, 

.alion, gavion, horion, 1 1 
million, morion, pion, scion, sc 
septentrion, ialion. trillion, and a few 
more technical ten 
in son : poison, tison, blasor.. 
frison. oison, peson. 

2. Athenee. caducee, camee, 
coryphee, Elysee, athee, mauso 

phee, trochee, empyree. hymenee, lycee, 
musee, pygmee. spondee, a 

3. Arrete, comte. comite, cote,ete, be- 
rJdicite. pate, traite, te, veloute, aparte, 
the, Lethe. 

Fc i-2. genie, incendie, para 

ice*. 
B \:ice. 
6. Silence. 
1. Prelude. 

S. Cimeiiere, de Trier e. 
y. Augure, colure, mercun. 
mere, par jure. 

quadrille, vaudeville, vermice 
loncelle. 

11. Dilemme, gramme, and its com- 
[ vni is, as programme. &c. somme, and 
a few others from the Greek. 

12. Rerme. 

13. Babeurre, becarre, beurre. eimte- 
ta .. feurre, leurre, parterre 

:. ionnerre, verre. 

14. Carrosse. colosse, 2~ 
nasse, Perm esse. 

15. Amulette, squelette. 



Substantives that are Masculine in one signification, 
and Feminine in another. 

Aide is masculine when it means assistant, helper, 
as aide-de-camp, un aide-major, an adjutant ; un 

aide de cuisine, a cook's mate; and feminine when 
its meaning conveys the idea of aid, help, or support 
from any body, as vous etes toute son aide, you are 
all his support. 

Aigle is masculine when it means an eagle (bird 



Noons thus marked touris*) vary in gey: ei : :.ricn 



OF C4ENDER. 79 

of prey), or a great genius; and feminine when it 
denotes a standard. 

Amour is masculine in prose, and either mascu- 
line or feminine in poetry, but when used in the 
plural number, the feminine is preferred : ?ne& 
premieres amours, my first love ; de folles amours, 
foolish love ; except, however, in a mythological 
sense, for we say: les amours riants et Itgers, th 
laughing and playful loves (little cupids). 

Couleur is feminine when used to express tht 
optical effects produced through the light from 
external objects, as le vert est tine couleur primitive, 
green is a primitive colour ; but in compound words, 
as le couleur dUeau, de chair, de rose, de feu, de 
citron, &c, couleur takes the masculine gender, 
therefore, we say ; cette robe est dun couleur de rose 
charmant, that gown is of a beautiful rose colour ; 
however, to avoid affectation, we may suppress the 
word colour, and say, cette robe est dun rose 
charmant. 

Couple is feminine when it means a brace, a pair, 
two of a sort ; and masculine when it signifies a 
couple, a man and wife, or two friends united 
together by intimacy of feelings. 

JDelice, orgue, are masculine in the singular and 
feminine in the plural. 

Echo, a nymph, is feminine, and masculine when 
it expresses the repetition of a sound, as Vecho de la 
foret est sourd a ma voix, the echo of the forest is 
deaf to my voice. 

Enfant, child, is masculine when applied to a 
boy, and feminine to a girl; as cette jeune Jille est 
une belle enfant, that young girl is a fine grown 
child. 

Enseigne is masculine when it means an ensign, 



80 OF GENDER. 

an officer who carries a flag ; and feminine when 
used for a sign-post. 

Fxemple, meaning an example, model, instance, 
is masculine ; and feminine w r hen it means a copy 
for writing. 

Foudre, masculine when it signifies a large vat, 
a great captain, or a great orator, as un foudre de 
guerre, un foudre d' eloquence ; but it is of either 
gender, masculine or feminine, when it means light- 
ning, thunderbolt, as le foudre vengeur, or la foudre 
vengeresse. — {Acad. ) 

Garde is masculine in the sense of a keeper, 
warden ; and feminine when applied to a watch, 
or when it means a hilt, a nurse. Garde is also 
feminine when followed by explanatory words ; as 
la Garde de VEmpereur, la Garde Parisienne, la 
Garde Nationale. 

Gens is masculine when followed by an adjective, 
as gens instruits, learned people, and feminine when 
preceded by the adjective, ce sont de honnes gens, 
they are good people ; voila de sottes gens, there 
are foolish people. But when the adjective tout is 
prefixed to the word gens, the masculine gender 
prevails, as tons les honnetes gens, all honest people. 

Guide, a guide, a director, a driver, is masculine ; 
and feminine when it means the reins in driving. 

Hymne is generally masculine ; des hymnes repub- 
Ucai7is, republican hymns ; however, according to 
the French Academy, hymne is feminine in the 
liturgy style ; entonner une hymne a Veglise, to sing 
an hymn at church ; Santeuil a compose de belles 
hymnes, Santeuil has composed beautiful hymns. 

Manche, the handle of a tool, of a knife, &c, is 
masculine ; and feminine in the sense of a sleeve, 
or of the English Channel, as nos voisins de V autre 



OF GENDER. 



81 



cote de la Manche, our neighbours on the other side 
of the Channel. 

Manoeuvre, in a military style, to signify the 
working of a ship, is feminine, and masculine when 
it means a labourer, a journeyman. 

As there are many other substantives of the two 
genders, for shortness we will mention only those 
which may occur in common conversation. 



MASCULINE. 




Cornet, a standard bearer 


cornette 


a crape 


crepe 


a drill, a piercer 


foret 


the rolls, a register 


greffe 


a book 


livre 


memoir, a bill 


memoir e 


thanks 


merci 


mood, mode 


mode 


mould, cast, form 


movie 


a ship-boy 


mousse 


the philosopher's stone 


ceuvre 


office, business, prayers 


office 


page of a prince 


page 


a merry andrew 


paillase 


a hand's breadth 


palme 


pantomime 


pantomime 


Easter, Easter-day. 


pdque 


a comparison 


parallele 


pendulum 


pendule 


le Perche* 


perche 


summit, highest pitch 


periode 


anybody, nobody (a pro- 1 
noun) j 


personne 


spade, at cards 


pique 


gnatsnapper, a bird 


pivoine 


a plane-tree 


plane 


a stove, a canopy 


poele 


post, a military station 


poste 


nap, slumber 


somme 



fa woman's head-dress 
( when in dishabille 

a pancake 

a wood, a forest 

a graft 

a pound 

memory 

pity, mercy 

fashion 

muscle, a shell-fish 

moss, a plant 

action, an author's works 

pantry, larder, buttery 

page in a book 

a straw-bed 
fthe branch of a palm- 

\. tree, victory 

a dumb show 

the Passover 

a parellel line 

a clock 

pole ; perch, a fish 

a period, epocha 

a person (a noun) 

a pike, a weapon 

peony, a flower 

plane, an implement 

a frying-pan 

the post for letters 

sum, load, name of a river 



* An ancient province in France, which forms to-day the departments of l'Orne 
and d'Eure-et-Loir. 

E 2 



82 


OF GENDER 


• 


MASCULINE. 




FEMININE. 


a smile 


soiiris 


a mouse 


a porter 


Suisse 


Switzerland 


a tour, turn, trick 


tour 


tower, rook at chess 


trumpeter 


trompette 


trumpet 


the airy plains 


vague 


a wave surge 


a vase, vessel 


vase 


("trie slime in ponds, 
I lakes, &c. 


a veil 


voile 


a sail 



The following substantives, which formerly had the two genders 
with only one signification, are now used but in the masculine, viz. 
automne, cigar, epiderme : the word equivoque is feminine. 



Orge, barley is feminine, except in the following expressions : 
orge monde, perle, barley in a clean and bright condition. — (Acad.) 

*** The following substantives of the masculine gender, are related 
both to male and female kind, as le corbeau* le crabe, le crapaud, 
Vecureuil, le perroquet, le renne, le requin, le sarigue, le rhinoceros, le taon 
(pronounced ton) ; and for the same reason, the next ones of the 
feminine gender, are also relating both to female and male, as la 
baleine, la becassine, la corneille, la corbine, la hyene, la fouine, la 
grenouille, la perruche. 

In order to distinguish the gender in the above substantives, the 
words either male or femelle, ought to follow them, as un serpent male, 
or un serpent femelle. 

In French, when the name of a town ends in a feminine termi- 
nation, as Rome, Venise, Marseilles, Toulouse, Mantoue, it is gene- 
rally of the feminine gender, and in every other case it is masculine, 
except, however, Jerusalem, Sion, Ilion, Albion, which are also of the 
feminine gender. 

As there are substantives with the gender of which the French 
themselves are not very familiar, we refer the learner to the Gram- 
mar of Gramm., vol. i. p. ISO, ninth edition, 1838. 



INTRODUCTION TO THE LEXICOLOGY. 83 

AN EXPLANATORY TABLE 

Of The RELATION BETWEEN REGIMENS and CASES. 

As many persons are accustomed to use the word 
case, where, in modern languages, except the 
German, and perhaps some Northern languages, 
they ought to use the word regimen, the following 
is an explanatory table of the relation between 
regimen and cases. This relation is not always 
exactly just, but it is of little importance, since this 
exactness is not absolutely requisite for the greatest 
part of those who study the French language. 

The substantive or the pronoun being subject °f\ -*r T ive 

a phrase, answers to the f 

The indirect regimen, preceded by the preposition ) « 
dc, of, to the j 

The indirect regimen, preceded by the preposition ~> ^ 
a, to, to the j 

The direct regimen to the Accusative. 

The substantive or pronoun in an apostrophe, to \ v 

The indirect regimen, preceded by the preposition \ A 
de, from, or par, by, to the . . , | ablative. 

But nevertheless I recommend to those who study 
the French language, to avoid denominations which 
are contrary to its genius, and not to prefer the 
opinion of some individuals to that of all the best 
French grammarians ; to the constant practice of 
the University of Paris, and the opinion of the 
French Academy. 



84 INTRODUCTION 



EXPLANATION 



ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE EXERCISES. 



m. stands for masculine. 

f. feminine. 

pi. plural. 

s. or sing. singular. 

or contr.} articles co "tracted. 

art. article. 

pr. preposition. 

pron. pronoun 

el. elision. 

adv. adverb. 

h m. h mute. 

h asp. ■ h aspirated. 

obj. object. 

ind-1. present of the indicative. 

ind-2. imperfect. 

ind-3. preterit definite or perfect, 

ind-4. preterit indefinite or compound of the present. 

ind-5. preterit anterior or compound of the preterit. 

ind-6. * pluperfect or compound of the imperfect 

ind-7. future absolute. 

ind-8. future anterior or compound of the future. 

imp. imperative. 

con-1. present of tlie conditional. 

o ( first conditional past or compound of the 

\ conditional. 

con-3. second conditional past*. 

subj-l. present of the subjunctive. 

subj-2. imperfect of the subjunctive. 

* That tense which is called also super-compound, as j'aurais eu parle, I should 
have had spoken, is not of a very frequent use in the French language. 



TO THE LEXICOLOGY. 85 

subj-3. stands for /P"*^* of the subjunctive or compound of 

J \ the present subjunctive, 

i • a _ ("pluperfect of the subjunctive or compound of 

■J " \ the imperfect subjunctive. 

inf-1. present of the infinitive. 

inf-2. participle present. 

inf-3. participle past. 

A * in the exercises denotes that the word under which it is 
placed, is not expressed in French. 

— denotes that the English word is spelt alike in French, or at 
least the part under which this sign is placed. 

= denotes that the French word differs from the English only 
in its termination, as directed p. 92. 

Those French words which are followed by the above signs, are 
to take the form which they point out. 

In the third part, the * is no longer placed under the word, but 
after it in the margin. 

In filling the exercises, the order of the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. 
placed sometimes on the phrases after the French words, and 
sometimes above, is to be observed. 

In the exercises, when several English words are included between 
a parenthesis ( ), they must be translated by the only words placed 
under. 



36 INTRODUCTION 



INTRODUCTION TO THE GRAMMAR. 

Grammar, as we have already stated page 1, is 
the art of speaking and writing correctly. 

To speak is to manifest externally, by certain 
signs which mankind have agreed upon, the thoughts 
which are combined internally in the mind. 

Our thoughts are manifested by words either 
spoken or written. 

The signs made use of for writing are called 
letters, and a collection of these, in order, is called 
an Alphabet. — {See p. 1.) 



GENERAL DEFINITION 

OF THE NINE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

We have in French nine kinds of words, or parts 
of speech, namely : the Substantive, the Article, the 
Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Preposition, 
the Adverb, the Conjunction, and the Interjection. 

The Substantive is a word which serves to name 
a person or thing, as Pierre, Peter ; livre, book. 

The Article is one of these words, le, la, les, the, 
placed before common nouns; as le livre, the book ; 
la femme, the woman ; les rois, the kings or kings. 

The Adjective is a word which is added to a 
substantive, to express the quality of a person or 
thing ; as bon pere, good father ; beau livre, fine 
book. 



TO THE LEXICOLOGY. 87 

The Pronoun is a word which supplies the place 
of a noun; as il joae, he plays; il is a pronoun, 
because it represents a person already spoken of. 

The Verb is a word, the chief use of which is to 
express affirmation. When we say, La vertu est 
aimable, virtue is amiable, we affirm that the quality 
aimable belongs to la vertu ; the verb est expresses 
that affirmation. 

The Preposition is a word that serves to express 
the relation of things one to another, and this it 
does by joining the noun or pronoun following to 
the word which precedes it. When we say le fruit 
de Varbre, the fruit of the tree ; &is a preposition 
because it expresses the relation between fruit and 
arbre. 

The Adverb is a word which is generally joined 
to the verb or the adjective, in order to discriminate 
their signification. When we say cet enfant parte 
distinct ement, that child speaks distinctly, by the 
word distinctement, we mean that he speaks one 
way rather than another. 

The Conjunction is a word that serves to connect 
sentences. In this sentence, il pleure et rit en meme 
temps, he cries and laughs at the same time, the 
word et is a conjunction, because it unites the first 
sentence il pleure, with the second il rit. 

The Interjection is a word that serves to express 
the various sentiments and sudden emotions of the 
soul; 'ds helas ! alas! &c*. 

* A more particular explanation of these nine parts of speech will 
be illustrated in the following chapters. 



88 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 



PART I. 



ETYMOLOGY, 



LEXICOLOGY OF WORDS 

CONSIDERED BOTH IN THEIR NATURES AND INFLECTIONS. 



CHAPTER I. 

[Henceforth we shall endeavour to proceed gradually from the 
known to the unknown.] 

OF THE SUBSTANTIVE OR NOUN. 

The Substantive according to its general defini- 
tion, is a word which serves to name a person or 
thing ; as Pierre, Peter ; livre, book ; montagne, 
mountain, &c. 

There are two sorts of substantives; the substan- 
tive common and the substantive proper. 

The substantive common or appellative, is that 
which belongs to several persons, or things of the 
same kind; thus homme, man; oiseau, bird ; arbre 



OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 89 

tree, &c, are common, because the name homme 
belongs to all rational beings, and oiseau, to all the 
birds, &c. 

The substantive proper is that which belongs to 
one person, or one thing only ; as, Cesar ', Cesar ; 
la Tamise, the Thames; Paris, Paris; Londres, 
London, &c. 

These are the only two sorts of substantives ; 
but, among the substantives common, we must dis- 
tinguish the collectives, on account of certain laws 
peculiar to some of them in the French language. 

Collectives are those which, though in the singular 
number, yet present to our mind the idea of several 
objects of the same kind, as united, and forming 
one mass or assemblage. 

They are divided into two sorts, viz., those that 
express a whole body ; as armee* army ; peuple, 
people ; foret, forest ; and those which express only 
a partial number ; as infinite, infinity ; la plupart, 
the most part. The first are called general collec- 
tives, and the others, partitive. 

There is another class of substantives which are 
called abstracts, owing to their expressing an object 
which the mind alone can conceive, but invisible 
and beyond the reach of our senses, as vertu, vice, 
harmouie, infamie, &c. 

OF GENDER. 

In substantives we are to consider the gender and 
number. 

To the difference of the sexes must be attributed 
the division of the genders of substantives into 
masculine and feminine. The masculine belongs to 
men and animals of the male kind; and the femi- 
nine to women and animals of the female kind. 



90 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

This distinction being once established, it has 
through imitation, been extended to all substantives. 
The French language does not admit of the neuter- 
gender, which is found in several others. 



OF NUMBER. 

There are two numbers, the singular when we 
speak of one person or thing ; as un homme 9 a man ; 
un livre, a book ; and the plural, when we speak of 
several persons or things; as les hommes, men ; les 
tivres, books. 

Number, therefore, is the property which substan- 
tives have of denoting either one thing or several 
things*. 

HOW TO FORM THE PLURAL. 

General Ride.— The plural is formed by adding s 
at the end of a word, as 

Singular. Plural. 

le roi, the king les rois the kings 

la reine, the queen les reines the queens 

Exceptions. — 1st. Nouns ending in the singular, 
in s, x 9 z 9 admit no change in the plural ; as 



lefils the son 
la voix the voice 
le nez the nose 



lesjils the sons 
les voix the \oices 
les nez the noses 



2nd. Nouns ending in the singular, in an. eit, ou 9 
take x in the plural ; as 

* Proper names have no plural ; as Londres, London ; Paris, 
Paris ; Milton, Milton ; la Tamise, the Thames. 



OF THE SUBSTANTIVE 



91 



bateau 


a boat 


bateaux 


boats 


feu 


fire 


feux 


fires 


eaillou 


stone 


cailloux 


stones 



but trou, a hole ; clou, a nail ; filou, a pickpocket ; 
matou, a ram-cat ; licon, a halter ; loup-garou, a 
were- wolf; cou, neck; bamhou, concou, ecrou, the 
nut ; foil, a fool ; sou, a penny ; toutou, a whelp ; 
verrou, a bolt, follow the general rule, that is, they 
take s in the plural*. 

3rd. Most nouns ending in the singular in al and 
ail, form their plural in aux ; as 



mat 


evil 


maux 


evils 


animal 


animal 


animaux 


animals 


marechal 


marshal 


marechaua 


marshals 


travailf 


work 


travaux 


works 


bail 


a lease 


baux 


leases 


sous-bail 




sous-baux 




cor ail 


coral 


cor aux 


corals 


email 


enamel 


emaux 


enamels 


soupirail 


a vent 


soupiraux 


vents 


vantail 


window-shutter 


vantaux 


window- shutters 



but bal, ball ; pal, pale ; regal, treat ; col, callosity , 
carnaval, carnival ; at t trail, dress or train ; camail, 
capuchin ; detail, particulars ; evantail, a fan ; 
epouvantail, a bugbear ; gouvernail, a rudder ; 
mail, mallet, mall ; poitrail, the breast of a horse ; 
portail, the front gate of, &c, : serail, seraglio, 
follow the general rule, simply taking s. Bercail, 
sheep-fold, has no plural. Betail, cattle ; a'ieul, 



* We "have but fourteen words in French ending in aa, as follow : aloyau, baca- 
liau, dry cod fish; boyau, cornuau, a kind of shad, etau, gluau, gruau, "hoyaa, 
a mattock; joyau, noyau, pilau, stewed rice : sarrau, a waggoner's frock; tuyau, 
ztnau. a sort of American quadruped having paps ; and about 250 end in eau. 

t Travail takes s after I in the plural instead of aux, when it means a machine 
with four pillars to shoe horses, or when used in the sense of a report made either 
by a minister of state, or by a secretary to a minister of state. 



92 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

grandfather; ciel*, heaven; and ceil, eye, make 
bestiaux, dieuls and a'ieux, cieux and yeux. Ail, 
garlic, makes aulx in the plural. 

Observations. 

Nouns of more than one syllable ending in nt, 
formerly dropped the t in the plural ; as, enfant, 
enfans ; commandement, commandemens : but it is 
now usually retained ; as, enfants, commandements. 
Monosyllables also preserve the t in the plural ; as, 
dent, dents ; chant, chants ; gant, gants ; pont, 
ponts: except gent and tout, which make gens and 
tous in the plural. 

Many words are alike in both languages, and 
others differ only in their terminations. 

Those which are perfectly alike have the fol- 
lowing terminations : 

-al as animal, cardinal, fatal, general, local, &c. 

-ble — capable, &c, bible, &c , noble, double &c. 

-ace — face, grimace, grace, place, preface, &c. 

-ance — chance, complaisance, extravagance, &c 

-ence — abstinence, conference, continence, &c. 

-ice — artifice, auspice, edifice, justice, &c. 

-acle — - miracle, oracle, obstacle, receptacle, &c. 

-ade — ambuscade, cavalcade, brigade, &c. 

-age — age, adage, bandage, cage, cordage, &c. 

-ege — college, privilege, sacrilege, siege, sortilege, 

-ge — vestige, doge, barge, charge, orange, 

-ule — globule, ridicule, animalcule, &c. 

_ile — bile, debile, agile, docile, ductile, &c. 

-ine — carabine, doctrine, machine, &c. 

-ion — action, fraction, legion, nation, &c. 

-ant — constant, elegant, elephant, &c. 

-ent — absent, accident, compliment, &c. 

Many other English words require only the 
change of termination, in the following manner : 

* We say, des dels de lit, testers of a bed ; des ceils de bceuf, ovals. 



OF T1IE SUBSTANTIVE. 93 



■ary 
•ory 

■ous 


into 


-aire 

-oire 

-ce 

-te 

-eux 


-our 


— 


-eur 


-or 


— 


-eur 


-ine 


— 


-in 


Ave 


— 


-if 


■ry 


— 


-rie 


N. 


B. Adjectives in 



military 


militaire 


glory 


gloire 


clemency 


clemence 


beauty 


beaute 


dangerous 


dangereux 


favour 


faveur 


error 


erreur 


clandestine 


clandestin 


expressive 


expressif 


fury 


furie 




f-euse 


ike their feminine<J -ive 




1 -ine 



-eux*] 
-if In 
-in J 

Before writing this first exercise, the learner 
must bear in mind the general definition of the 
article ; 

le ") before a noun masculine in the singular numbers 
la Y „ ,, feminine „ „ „ vthe 

les) before either masculine or fem. in the plural . J 



EXERCISE. 

1. Peter; the book ; the mountain; London; the Thames ; the 
m. montagne f. 

people ; the forest ; the most part ; virtue ; vice ; the 
peuple m. foret f. plupart f, art. f. art. m. 

men ; the woman ; the women ; the kings : the good father ; the 
m. pi. f. pi. roi m. pi. hon m. 

good mother; he plays; virtue is amiable; the fruit of the 
bonne f. il joue art. m. 

tree ; that child speaks distinctly ; he cries and laughs at the 

m. cet m. parle ement pleure rit en 

same time. 
mime temps. 

•2. bird ; honour ; army ; infinity ; the queen , 

art. art. art. art. f. 

the queens; the son; the sons; the voice; the voices; the nose, 

f. pi. m. m. pi. f. f. pi. m. 

the noses ; boat ; boats ; fire ; fires ; 9tone ; 

m. pi. art. m. art. m. pi. art. m. art. m. pi. art. f. 
stones ; hole ; holes ; nail ; nails ; pickpocket ; 
art. f. pi. art. m. art. m. pi. art. m. art. m. pi. vn m. 



94 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

pickpockets ; ram-cat : ram-cats ; halter ; halters ; 
des m pi. un m. des m. pi. un m. des m. pi. 

werewolf; werewolves; evil; evils; work; works; 
un m. des m. pi. art. m. art. m. pi. art. m. art. m.pl. 
ball ; balls ; pale ; pales ; treat ; treats >" 

art. m. art. pi. un m. des pi. un m. des pi. 

callosity; callosities; local; locals*; carnival; 

un m. des pi. un m. des pi. art. m. 

carnivals ; trains ; particulars ; fans ; bugbears ; 

art. pi. des pi. des pi, des pi. des pi. 

rudders ; front-gates ; sheepfold ; cattle ; 

des pi. des pi. m. sing. des pi. 

grandfathers or forefathers ; heaven ; heavens ; eye ; 

les aieuls ou les pi. art. m. art. pi. 
eyes ; testers of a bed ; ovalst ; garlicks. 
des des des 

3, The beauty; the fables; the horror; the morality; the 
f. f.pl. thm. f. 

science ; the fraction ; the violence ; the machine ; the furious 
f. f . f. f. 

cardinal ; the pious seminary ; the great nation ; the fine victory ; 

m. m. grande f. belle f. 

the sensitive (plant) ; the famous general ; the dangerous animal ; 
f. m m. 

the monstrous elephant ; the noble generosity ; the holy bible ; the 

m. f. sainte f. 

conference; she is very attentive; the clemency; the destruction, 

f. elle est tres f. f. f. 

and the consequence ; fortune and courage ; impudence and 
f. art. f. art. m. art. f. 

vivacity ; prudence and fidelity ; he is very scrupulous ; 
art. f. art. f. art. f. il tres m. 

the sublimity and the sentiments ; energy and expressions ; 

f . m. pi. art. f. art. f. pi. 

the carnage was terrible ; presents sometimes are not acceptable; 
m. fut art. m.pl. quelquefois ne sont pas — bles 

every instrument is not harmonious; memory is extraordinary; 
tout m. m. art. f. f. 

complaisance is charitable, 
art. f. f. 

* Des locaux. 

t Vide the note. p. 91, and p. 92 for the English terminations of the above 
substantives. 



OF THE ARTICLE 95 

CHAPTER II. 
OF THE ARTICLE. 

The Article is a small word prefixed to substan- 
tives to determine the extent of their signification. 
Like the Substantive, the Article may be divided 
into three classes, definite, indefinite*, and partitive. 
Le, la, les, die, de la, des, au, a la, aux, are definite 
articles : un, une, are indefinite ; and da, de la, de C , 
des, are partitive articles, when they mean a certain 
portion or quantity of any thing ; as 

du pain, some bread. des pommes, some apples. 

de la viande, some meat. de V argent, some money. 

As it may be observed, these different articles 
take both genders and numbers of the substantives 
to which they are prefixed, and except the indefinite 
un, une, a, an, they are liable to two kinds of state, 
viz. to elision and contraction. 

DEFINITE ARTICLE. 

le before a substantive masculine in the singular, le pere, the father. 
la feminine . . la mere, the mother 

les before plural Substantives of both genders {tf^AeSers 
du masculine singular of the 

de la feminine singular of the 

des both genders of the 

* The definite article supposes a particular and previous knowledge of the 
object which it is spoken of, as, la femme que fai rencontree V autre jour ; the women 
whom I met the other day. But the indefinite article supposes only a general 
knowledge of the subject, without any previous acquaintance with it, as, fai vu 
une femme qui s'est moquee de moi ; I saw a woman who laughed at me. 

According to the best grammarians, we have in French but one article, divided 
into simple and compound articles ; therefore, if the above division we have just 
made use of seems contrary to the genius of our language, w r e hope it will not give 
to the intelligent learner a false notion on this important part of the French speech. 



96 OF THE ARTICLE. 



EXERCISE ON THE ARTICLE. 

The siuv the moon, and the stars, are the glory of nature 

soleil m. lune f. etoile f. pi. gloire f. art. 

The king, the queen, and the princes, are well pleased. The 

prince m. pi. tres- satisfait pi. 
top (of the) mountains, and the bottom of the valleys are 
sommet m. des montagne f. pi. fond m. vallee f. pi. 

equally useful. The rose, the violet, the tulip, the narcissus, 
egalement utile pi. f. violette f. taftpe f. narcisse m, 

the hyacinth, the gilliflower, the jasmine, the lily, the honeysuckle, 
jacinthe f. girofiee f. jasmin m. &s m. chevrefeuille m. 

the ranunculus, are the delight of the sight. Poetry, painting, 
renoncule f. delice f. pi. art. vwef. art. poesie f. art. peinture f. 

music, dancing, and architecture, are (sister-arts. ) Zfte 

art. musique f. art. t&zrase f. art. f. soeur f. pi. 

day and the night are equally necessary. 
jour m. nuil f. egalemeut necessaires. 

OF THE ELISION. 

Elision is the omitting of the e in the masculine 
article le, or the a in the feminine article /a, when 
these articles precede a noun beginning with a 
vowel or A mute. Thus we say, Vargent for le 
argent, and Vhistoire for /a histoire ; but then 
instead of the letter thus omitted, we put this little 
mark (') called an apostrophe. — Vide pf 73. 

The . . Va, Ve 9 li< to, tu, Vh mute, un m. une f. a, an, 

Of the, de ta ; de te* de to, de Vu, de Vh mute, d'u?i, m. d'une f, of a. 



EXERCISES. 

The soul of man, without cultivation, is like a 

dme f. art- hommeh.m. sans culture f. est comme 
diamond (in the rough). The history of Spain is sometimes 
diamantm. brut. =Um. d'Espagnef, quelquefois 



OF THE ARTICLE. 



97 



anemone ; 

— f . 



Look at the amaranth and the 

Considerez amaranthe f. el 

pride are always 

orgueilm. sont toujour s 

Honesty, 



very interesting. 

fort interessante f. 

what beauty ! Self-love and 

quelle btaute! art. Amour-propre m. art. 

the offspring of a weak mind. 

partage m. foible 2 esprit I m. art. 

innocence, honour, and the love of 

f. art. honneur h. m. amour art. 
esteemed. Summer, autumn, 

estimes m. pi. art. ete m. art. automne m. fc* art. foyer /j m. 
very changeable. France is separated from Italy by the 

tres-vuriables pi. art. f. separee de art. Jfafte f. par 

Alps, and from Spain by the Pyrenees. 

Alpes, f. pi. art. f. pi. 



Honnetete f. h m. art. 

virtue are (very much) 
verta f. ^rt * 

and winter, are 



Contraction of the Article. 



Contraction is the reducing of two syllables into 
one, and takes place with the article, when the 
prepositions a or de precedes it, in which case, 
instead of putting de le before a masculine singular, 
beginning with a consonant or h aspirated, we put 
du ; instead of a le we put au, and in the plural, in 
nouns of both genders, either before a consonant or 
a vowel, de les is changed into des, and a les into 
aux. 



Thus we 


say 


: 




Du roi 


instead of 


De le roi 


du heros 




— 


de le heros 


au roi 







a le roi 


au heros 







a le heros 


des roi.9 




— 


de les rois 


des reines 




— 


de les reines 


aux rois 




— 


a les rois 


aux reines 




— 


a les reines 



of the king. 
of the hero. 
to the king. 
to the hero, 
of the kings, 
of the queens, 
to the kings. 
to the queens. 



The masculine gender ought to be preferred. 



98 OF THE ARTICLE. 



EXERCISE. 

Silk is soft to the touch. What is agreeable to the taste 

art- Soie f. douce toucher m e Ce qui gout m. 

is often contrary to the health. He obeyed the orders oftheYmg. 

souvent contraire a la sante f. II obeit aux ordre m. pi. 
The warbling of birds, the murmuring of streams, 

gazouillement m. oiseau m. pi. murmure m. art. ruisseau m. pi. 
the enamel of meadows, the coolness of woods, the 

email art. prairie f. pi. fraicheur f. art. bois m. pi. 

fragrance of flowers, and the sweet smell of plants, 
parfum m. art. f. pi. art. douce odeur f. art. plante f. pi. 

contribute greatly to the pleasure of the mind, and to the health 
eontribuent beaucoup plaisir m. esprit m. 

of the body. A man given to pleasure was never a 

corps m. Un livre art. fut2. ne 1. jamais 3. 

great man. The happiness of a feeling man is to relieve the 
grand bonheur m. un sensible 2 1 de subvenir a 

wants of the poor. Shun the company of the wicked, 

besoin m. pi. pauvre pi. Evitez cornpagnief* mechant 

and court that of the good. The fame of the hero of 

recherchez celle des honnetes gens. renommee f. de 

Waterloo is immortal. 
= = telle. 



Observe that in the plural either before a con- 
sonant or a vowel, an h mute or aspirated, aux and 
des stand always for a les and de les, which are never 
used 

EXAMPLES* 

Des palais, des heros, des ho?nmes, des animaux. 
Auxforets, aux heros, aux honneurs, aux dmes, aux oiseaux. 

JDe and a are never contracted with la before a 
feminine substantive singular, beginning with a 
consonant. 



OF THE ARTICLE. 99 

EXAMPLES. 

De la reine, of the queen. a la reine, to the queen. 

Nor are de and a contracted with le or la before 
any substantive singular, beginning with a vowel or 
A mute, but then the article suffers elision. 



EXAMPLES. 



De I' esprit, of the mind. 

a Vesprit, to the mind. 

de Vdme, of the soul- 

de Vhistoire, of the history. 



de Vhomme, of man. 

a Vhomme, to man. 

a Vame, to the soul. 

a Vhistoire to the history. 



Contraction does not take place when the adjec- 
tive tout, all, every, intervenes between de or a and 
*he article. 

EXAMPLES. 

De tout le monde, of every body. 

de tous les homines, of ail men. 

a tout le monde, to every body. 

a tous les hommes, to all men. 

de toutes les vertus, of all virtues. 

a toutes les maisons, to all houses. 



EXERCISE. 

Death is the share of every body; but it is awful W 
art. mort f. partage m. mats elle redoutable 

all men. The hope of success strengthened the cause 

esperance f. art. reussitte f. fortifia — f. 

of virtue, and weakened the audaciousness of rebellion, 

art. vertu f. affaiblit audace f. art. — f 

Fire of imagination, strength of mind, and 

art. feu m. art. — f. art. force f. art. art. 

firmness of soul, are gifts of nature. We saw with 
fermete f. d'dme des don m. pi. art. — f. Nous vimes avec 

horror, that man given to avarice and voluptuousness. 

horreur cet livre art. — f. a art. voluptef. 



100 OF THE ARTICLE. 

More or less pain is the lot of every body. The history 

Plus ou moins de peine partage m. tout le monde. 

of man, under every circumstance of life, is the 

art. dans toutes art. circonstance f. pi. art. vie 

study of the wise. 
etude f. sage. 



1. General Rule. In French, the article always 
agrees in gender and number with the substantive 
to which it belongs. 

EXAMPLES. 

Le livre queje cherche, The book which I am looking for 

Lafemme queje vois, The woman whom I see. 

Les hommes qui eiudient, The men that study. 

Les societes que je frequente, The societies which I frequent. 

EXERCISE. 

The father mother, brothers, sisters, 

pere m. art. mere f. art. frere m.pl. art. soeur f. pi. 
uncles, aunts, and several other relations, were 

art. oncle m.pl. art. tantef. pi. plusieurs autres parent m.pl. etaient 

present at the marriage ceremony. What we 

— m. pi. a (du) mariage m. 2 art. celebration f. 1. Ce que nous 
esteem is health, . frugality, liberty, vigour of 

estimonsc'est&vt. art. f rug alite f. art. Hberte'f. art. vigueurf. 

mind and body ; it is the love of virtue, reverence for 

pr. corps ; c'est art. art. crainie f. de 

the Gods, zeal for our friends, fidelity 

Dieu m. pi. art. attachement m. a nos ami m. pi. art. fidelite f. 
to all mankind, moderation in prosperity, 

envers art. monde art. — f. dans art. prosperity f. art. 
fortitude in adversity, courage, good manners, and 

force f. art. adversite art. — m. art. bonnes moeurs f. pi. 

the abhorrence of flattery. The horror of vice and the 

horreur f. Am. art. fatterief, horreur art. m. 

love of virtue are the delight of the wise. 
amour art. delice f. pi. 



OF THE ARTICLE. 101 

2. General Rule. The article and the preposi- 
tions a and de, whether contracted or not, are inva- 
riably to be repeated before every substantive. 

EXAMPLES. 

Z'esprit, hs graces, et la beaute nous captivent. 
Wit, grace, and beauty captivate us. 
Je vis hier le roi, la reine, et les princes. 
I saw yesterday the king, queen, and princes, 
^'ignorance est la mere de Z'erreur, de /'admiration, et des 

preventions de toute espece. 
Ignorance is the mother of error, admiration, and prejudices 

of every kind. 

EXERCISE. 

Innocence of manners, sincerity, obedience and 

art. — f. art. mceurs pi. art. =f. art. obeissance f. 

abhorrence of vice, inhabit this happy region. The 

art. horreur h m. art. — m. habitent heureuse — f. 

plants of the gardens, the animals of the forest, tha minerals of 
plante jardin m. — foret f. — 

the earth, the meteors of the sky, must all concur to 
terre f. meteor e del m. doivent tous concourir a 

store the mind with an inexhaustible variety. Neither 
enrichir par inepuisable 2 =f. 1 * art. 

suffering, punishment nor kindness make any im- 

pede f. art. chdtiment m. * art. car esse f. pi. nefont nulle 
pression on those minds. The lily is the emblem of 

— sur dme pi. lis m. symbole m. art. 

virginity, candour, innocence and purity. 

= f. de art. = f. de art. — f. de art. purete f. 



PARTITIVE ARTICLE. 

Du, de la, de V, des, answering to the partitive 
some, any, often understood in English, are always 
expressed in French. 



102 OF THE ARTICLE. 



EXAMPLES. 

Je mange du pain, I eat bread. 

// freud de la peine, He takes some trouble. 

Nous mangeons du hachis, We eat some hash. 

Elle congoit de la haine. She conceives a hatred 

Vous avez de Yamitie, You have some friendship. 

Vous prenez de Yhumeur, You got into an ill humour. 

Nous cueillons des pommes, We gather apples. 

Us vendent des oranges, They sell oranges. 

EXERCISE. 

Give me some bread and butter. Offer him some 

Donnez-moi pain m. pr. art. beurre m. Offrez-lui 

meat. Take some salt. (There is) mustard. We have 

viande f. Prenez sel m. J^oz'Za pr. art. moutarde f. A'ows avons 

some girkins. Shall 1 offer you some fowl? Shall I 

cornichons pi. Vous offrirai-je poulet m. Vous 

help you to some fruit ? I will take (with pleasure) some broth. 
servirai-je * — m. Je prendrai volontiers bouillon m. 

Bring me some bread. Pour me out some beer. Drink sow?e 
Apportez-moi Versez-moi * foere f. Buvez 

wine. Take some tea. Put (in it) some sugar and milk. 

vin m. Prenez the m. Mettez-y sucre m. pr. art. laitm. 

I hear some noise. There falls some hail. She has some 
J'entends bruit m. J7 fomoe ore/e f. s. jE7/e a 

pride. Have you any ink and pens ? Put some 

orgueil m. ^4vez-i;ows pr. art. erccre f. pr. art. plumes pi. Mettez 

oil and vinegar to the salad. Eat some lob- 

te'Ze h. m. pr. art. vinaigre m. eforcs salade f. Mangez pr. art. Fo- 
ster. He has received some gold and silver. 
mard m. A asp. i? a reczz or m. pr. art argent m. 

The partitive article, generally after a negation 
or immediately before an adjective or any other 
word preceding the substantive, is expressed by de 
alone, without any distinction of gender or number, 
as 

Je bois de bon vin I drink good wine 

Je rCai pas de pain I have no bread 

Je ne mange jamais defromage He never eats any cheese 

Ejes ont achete de beaux raisins They have bought fine grapes. 



OF THE ARTICLE. 



103 



INDEFINITE ARTICLE 

The indefinite article is : 

fem, a, an 



un i] 
d'un 
a un 



une 
d'une 
a une 



of a or from a, an 
to a, to an 



EXAMPLES. 



Un homme 
Un lion 
Unefemme 



a man 


d'un ami 


a lion 


d'un heros 


a woman 


dune action 



of a friend 
of a hero 
of an action 



The elision never takes place in the indefinite 
article un, line, except in the partitive de placed 
before it. 

RECAPITULATION OF THE ARTICLES. 

1. How to render in French the English prepo- 
sitions of and from followed either by the definite 
article the or by the possessive pronouns my, thy, 
his, her, its, and by the demonstrative pronouns this, 
these, or that, those. 

We have seen that the, standing alone, is expressed 
in French 



*>y< 



le before a noun masculine beginning with a con- ^ 
sonant or 7i aspirated J 

la before a noun feminine beginning with a conso- \i 
nant or h aspirated / 

V before a noun of either gender, beginning with a \ 
vowel or h mute ^ 



the sin- 
gular 



Us before nouns of both genders, without any dis- }in the plu- 
tinction whatever $ ral 





EXAMPLES. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Le livre 


the book 


les livres the books 


la table 


the table 


les heros the heros 


le heros 


the hero 


les haines the hatreds 


la haine 


the hatred 


les oiseaux the birds 


Voiseau 


the bird 


les antes the souls 


Vdme 


the soul 


les histoires the histories 


Yhonneur 


the honour 




Vhistoire 


the history 





104 OF THE ARTICLE. 

y fun before a noun masculine singular! without any 
y \une before a noun feminine singular/ elision 



EXAMPLES. 



Un homme a man 
nuefemme a woman 
une armee an army 



un her os a hero 
un livre a book 

une histoire a history 



2. The English prepositions of or from standing 
alone, are rendered in French by de, and to by a, 

as 

of or from me ... de moi 1 tome a moi. 



But when followed by the definite article the, they 
are expressed in the following manner : 



of or 
from 4 
the, by 



to the, 
by 



du before a noun masculine singular beginning with, a con- 
sonant or h aspirated 

de la before a noun feminine singular beginning with a 
consonant 

de V before any noun beginning with, a vowel or h mute 

des before any noun in the plural 

' au before a noun masculine singular beginning with a con- 
sonant or h aspirated 

a la before a noun feminine singular beginning with a con- 
sonant 

a V before any noun beginning with, a vowel or h mute 

aux before any noun in the plural number 



3. With the indefinite articles or an, thus: 

r r ^ (oVun before a noun masculine 

of or from a, by { dme before & nQun feminine 

, (a un before a noun masculine 
~ une before a noun feminine 



a ' b >'{a 



OF THE ARTICLE. 



[05 



EXAMPLES. 



Du pare of the park 
de la riviere of the river 
de Vesprit of the mind 
des carrosses of the coaches 
au pare to the park 

a la riviere to the river 



a Vesprit 
aux carrosses 
d'un jour 
d'une nuit 
a im jour 
a line nuit 



to the mind 
to the coaches 
of a day 
of a night 
to a day 
to a night 



4. The same prepositions, when followed by the 
possessive pronouns my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, 
and their, are rendered thus : 



of 
from 











Sin 


nilar 


Plural 




m. 


f. 


m. &f. 




'my 






mon 


ma 


mes 




thy 






ton 


ta 


tes 


n 


his, her, 
our 


or its 


> by de < 


son 
notre 


sa 
nofre 


ses 

7LOS 




your 






votre 


votre 


vos 




their 


J 




leur 


leur 


leurs 


fe 


1 


imon 


ma 


mes 






ton 


ta 


tes 


to 


his, her, 
our 


or its 


> by£ < 


son 
notre 


sa 
notre 


ses 

UGS 




your 






votre 


votre 


vos 




, their 


Ohs 


ervatio 


•leur 
US. 


leur 


leurs 



Mon, ton, son, ma, ta, sa, agree in gender with 
the substantive to which they are joined ; except, 
however, before a feminine substantive, beginning 
with a vowel or an h mute, in which case, mon, ton, 
son are used instead of ma, ta, sa, in order to avoid 
the harsh sound that would result from the meeting 
of the vowels. Thus we say: 



Mon dme 9 my soul 

ton epee, thy sword 

son humeur, his or her humour ) 

f2 



~\ fma dme 

^instead oH ta epee 

vsa humeur 



106 



OF THE ARTICLE. 



Again, when of or from are followed by the 
demonstrative this or that, these or those : 



from or of this or that, by de 
to this or that, by a 



ce before a noun masculine beginning 
with a consonant or h aspirated 

cet before a noun masculine beginning 
with a vowel or h mute 

cette before a noun feminine, without 
any elision 



from or of these or those, by de ces'] before nouns plural of both 
to these or those, by a ces J genders 



EXAMPLES. 



de mon pere 
a ta mere 
de son fr ere 
de notre ville 
a votre maison 
a leur travail 



of my father 
to thy mother 
of his brother 
of our town 
to your house 
to their work 



de cette terrasse from this terrace 
de ce lieu of that place 

of this man 
of this year 
fof or from these 
I trees 



de cet homme 
de cette annee 

de ces arbres 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISE UPON THE ARTICLE. 

1. The palace of the king; of the queen; of the man; of the 

m. pr. art. m. f. pi. 

men ; to the king ; to the queen ; to the man ; to the men ; 

pi. pr. art. m. f. m. pi. 

from a balcony ; from a window ; of a prince ; to a princess ; 
pr. art. m. pr. art. fenetre f. pr. art. m. f. 

of the gardens : of the evening ; to the courtiers ; of a table ; 

pi. pr. art. soir m. pr. art. courtisan m. pr. art. f. 
to the master; to a lady; of the soul; of the horse; to a cat ; 
pr. art. maitrem. dame f. f. pr. art. chevalm. dial m. 

of the houses ; of a carpet ; from a basket ; to an orchard. 
f. el. tapis m. el. panier m. verger m. 

2. I have an orange which I will give to a friend whom you 

J'ai f. que je donrurai m. que vous 

know. I have been to church and you to the playhouse. We 
connaissez ete Veglise pr. art. spectacle m. Nous 

shall have to-morrow some good oysters, new laid eggs, and some 
aurons demain part. huitresf.nl. desceufo\.frais et part. eL 



OF THE ARTICLE. 107 

excellent wine. You went from London to Southampton by the 

— vin m. Vous alldtes pr. — dres pr. — par 

railway. I read the life of a hero. I come from a very fine 

chemindefer.m. Je lis vief. Jeviens pr. el. tres-beau 

country. It is a tale told by an idiot. Silence and contempt 

pays. Oest conic fait par — m. art. — art. mepris m. 
are the only vengeance which a gentleman ought to take of 
sont seule f. qu' galant homme devrait * tirer pr. el. 

a fool ; see the fable of the ass and the wild boar. 

sot m. voyez f. arte m. et du sanglier. 



3. Of my clothes; of thy handkerchief ; of his pocket; of your 

habit m. pi. mouchoirm. pocheL 

letters ; of our treasure ; to their house ; of this steeple ; of his 
lettre f. pi. ■ tresor m. f. ce docker 

hatred; of that hero; of this tower; from these models; of my 
f. asp. h ce m. cette tour ces modele pi. 

sister ; of my friendship ; to your relations ; the top of this 
sceur f. amitie f. parents sommet 

mountain ; to his friend ; of these pleasures ; of our duties ; to 
montagnef. ces plaisirm. pi. efetfozrm.pl. 

their connexions ; from his acquaintances ; to my neighbours ; 
liaison, f. pi. connaissance f. pi. voisin m. pi. 

to her honour. 

honneur m. h m. 



OF NEGATIONS. 

In the following negative modes of speech, the 
caret points out the place which the French verb 
must occupy, whenever it is not in the infinitive 
mood. 



108 



OF THE ARTICLE. 



Not 

never 
nothing 



ne A pas 
ne A point 
ne a jamais 
ne a Tien 



nobody ne A personnel' 

not a jot ne a goutte 

i fne a nulle 
no where < 

^ part 



je ne suis pas, fyc. I am not, &c. 

nous n'avons 1 , 

V we have not 
point J 

il ne joue jamais he never plays 

vous ne dites 1 ., . 

r^ f y° u sa y notniT1 g 

^enevoie^.l I see nobody 

fldonotseeatall, or 

,;> ne vois it/owtftf < I see not in the 

L least 

je ne vais nulle\ T , 

J . Y I go no where 



In compound tenses, the anxiliary verb parts the 
negative ?ie from the particles pas or point, jamais, 
&c, that accompany it, as nous n&\ oris point parte, 
we have not spoken ; on w'auroit jamais cru, one 
could never have believed*. 



EXERCISE. 

I do not say ; I have not said ; I have never seen ; 1 never 
* dis ai dit ai vu 

(tell a falsehood) ; I do nothing ; I have done nothing ; is he not 

mens fais fait est-il 

arrived ? does he not come ? I see nothing ; has he never seen ? he 
arrive * 2 wea? 1 t?ots a-£- vm 

never loses his time ; that (is worth) nothing ; I met nobody, 
perd temps m. cela vaut rencontrai 

The French grammarians generally divide the 
article as follows: 



Simple ... le, la, les 



compound . . . du, a la, au, aux* 



* The addition of pas or point to the negative particle ne, must not be con- 
sidered as a second negation, but only as a complementary part of it. 

* See the note, p. 95. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 109 

CHAPTER III. 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

The Adjective is a part of speech which accom- 
panies a substantive to express either its good 
or bad quality, as 

bon pere good father bonne mere good mother 

mauvais livre bad book mauvaise file bad girl 

These words bon, bonne, mauvais, mauvaise, are 
adjectives, as they express the qualities, either 
good or bad, of the above substantives. 

Observations. 

A word is known to be an adjective when it can 
be properly joined with the word personne, or the 
word chose ; thus, habile, skilful ; and agreable, 
agreeable, are adjectives, because we can say per- 
sonne habile, skilful person, chose agreable, agreeable 
thing. 

In French, the adjective takes the gender and 
number of the substantive to which it relates. 

How to form the Feminine in the French Adjectives. 

First General Rule. — All adjectives ending in the 
singular in a mute e are alike for both genders. 



EXAMPLES. 



Un homme aimable, tranquille, et an amiable, tranquil, and faith- 

fidele ful man 

une femme aimable, tranquille, et an amiable, quiet, and faithful 

fidele woman 



110 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



Second General Rule — 


-Whenever the adjective 


does not en 


d in a mute 


e, the mute 


e is added to 


form its feminine. 












EXAMPLES. 




masc. 




fem. 




cagol 




cagoi 


e 


bigot 


clos 




close 




closed 


cru 




crue 




row 


devot 




devote 


devout 


Espagnol 




Espagnole 


Spaniard 


idiot 




idiote 


idiot 


mauvais 




mauvaise 


bad 


mechant 




mechante 


wicked 


niais 




niah 


e 


silly 


poll 




polie 




polite 


pret 




prete 




ready 


-prudent 




prudente 


prudent 


ras 




rase 




shorn 


savant 




savante 


learning 


sense 




sensee 


sensible 


tortu 




tortue 


crooked 


*ccncret 




concrete 


concrete 


* sec ret 


national 




un 


meilleur 


*discret 


Espagno 




Musulman 


mineur 


*indiscret 


sextil 




coquin 


majeur 


*inquiet 


bissextil 




Mahometan 


posterieur 


*complet 


civil 




aucun 


superieur 


*incomplet 


incivil 




anterieur 


ulterieur 


*suret 


subtil 




citerieur 


prieur 


filial 


vil 




exterieur 




fatal 


viril 




interieur 




venal 


volatil 




inferieur 





and perhaps a few others in eur, which awaken an idea of opposi- 
tion or comparison. 

Auteur, docteur, dispos. imprimeur, professeur, chatain, have no feminine 
gender; however, auteur and docteur are sometimes applied to the feminine 
gender, for we say des femmes auteurs and des femmes docteurs. It must be ob- 
served that a substantive of the masculine gender, taken adjectively, although 
applied to the feminine, remains unchanged, as mme. Deshoulieres fut un poete 
distingue; Mile, T . . . sera un artiste renomme. 

First Particular Rule. — Most adjectives ending 

* Those adjectives marked with an asterisk require the grave accent on the 
penultimate e in the formation of their feminine, as it may be seen in concret, m. 
concrete f* 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



Ill 



in el, eil, ul, an, ten, on, ais, es, os, as, et, and ot, 
form their feminine by doubling the last consonant, 
with the addition of the e mute*, as 



m. 


f. 


m. 


f. 


m. f. 


m. f. 


cruel 


—le 


gras 


— se 


*bel —le 


sujet — te 


pareil 


—le 


epais 


— se 


*nouvel — le 


replet — te 


vermeil 


—le 


expres 


— se 


*fol — le 


douillet — te 


nul 


—le 


gros 


— se 


*mol — le 


profes — se 


paysan 


— ne 


net 


—te 


' vieil — le 


bas — se 


ancien 


— ne 


sot 


—te 


las — se 


metis — se 


bon 


— ne 


gentil 


—le 


muet — te 


vieillot — te 



* These five adjectives, bel, nouvel, &c., take the final I in the masculine before 
a vowel oxh mute, as un bel homme, un nouvel apparte merit ; but before a conso- 
nant or h aspirated, they make beau, nouveau, &c. 

Second Particular Rule. — Adjectives ending in/, 
change this letter into ve, as 



mast*. 
href 

actif 
naif 

neuf 



fern. 
breve 
active 
naive 
neuve 



short 
action 
ingenuous 
new 



Third Particular Rule. — Adjectives ending in 
eux, oux, eur, change x or r into se as 



fern. 






honteuse 




shameful 


vertueuse 




virtuous 


jalouse 




jealous 


epouse 

trompeuse 

menteuse 




spouse 

deceitful 

liar 


parleuse 




talkative 


joueuse 
' chanteuse 
I cantatrice 


and\ 


gambler 
singer 



masc. 
honteux 
vertueux 

jahux 

\epoux 
trompeur 
menteur 

\parleur 

\ jo near 

f chant eur 



Cantatrice applies to a person of great repute in the art of singing. 

t Epoux, parleur, joueur, and chanteur are called substantives adjectives. 



* Observe that adjectives ending in in do not double the n as divin, divine, 
fin, fine, chagrin, chagrine, libertin, libertine, &c. 



112 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES IN THEIR FEMININE 
TERMINATIONS. 



Kiasc. 

absous 
acteur 
accusateur 
admirateur 
bailleur 
beau 
benin 
blanc 
coi 

caduc 
defendeur 
\demandeur 
doux 

enchanteur 
executeur 
faux 
favori 
fou 
frais 
franc 
Grec 
liberateur 
long" 
malin 
lecteur 
jouvenceau 
jumeau 
mou 

nouveau 
Xpecheur 
persecuteur 
public 



fern. 

absoute 
actnce 
accusatr'ice 
admiratrice 
bailleresse 
belle 
benigne 
blanche 
coite 
cad u que 
defenderesse 
demander esse 
douce 

enchanteresse 
executvice 
fausse 
favorite 
foWe 
fraiche 
franche 
Grecque 
Jiberatrice 
long we 
maligne 
leetnce 
jouvenceWe 
jumeWe 
mo\\e 
nouvelle 
pechexesse 
persecutvice 
publique 



absolved 

actor 

accuser 

admirer 

granter 

fine 

benign 

white 

still, quiet 

frail 

defendant 

plaintiff 

sweet, mild 

charmer 

executor 

false 

favourite 

mad 

fresh 

frank 

Greek 

deliverer 

long 

malignant 

lecturer 

stripling 

twin 

soft 

new 

sinner 

persecutor 

public 



* Bailleur makes bailleresse for the feminine in the sense of granter of a lease, 
and batlleuse in the signification of a yawner. 

f Demandeur, demandeiesse, plaintiff; demandeur, demandeuse asker. 
f Pecheur, pecheuse, fisher. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



113 



masc. 


rem. 




roux 

sec 

tiers 


rousse 

seche 

tierce 


red 
dry 
third, &c. 


traitre 
Turc 


traitresse 
Turque 


traitor 
Turkish 


vengeur 
vieux 


venyeresse 
vieille 


avenger 
old 



A List of Substantives Adjectives which change eur 
into rice for the feminine. 



administrateur 


corrupteur 


fauteur 


perturbateur 


admoniteur 


curateur 


fornicateur 


procurateur 


adorateur 


debiteur 


generateur 


protecteur 


adulateur 


delateur 


instigateur 


reconciiiateur 


ambassadeur 


destructeur 


inoculateur 


reformateur 


approbateur 


dilaniateur 


introducteur 


speculateur 


bienfaiteur 


dictateur 


instituteur 


seducteur 


calomniateur 


directeur 


inventeur 


testateur 


coadjuteur 


dispensateur 


legislateur 


tuteur 


conciliateur 


dissipateur 


liberateur 


violateur 


eonducteur 


dissimulateur 


moderateur 


usurpateur 


conservateur 


distributeur 


moteur 


zelateur 


consolateur 


doxiateur 


operateur 




co-operateur 


executeur 


persecuteur 






Ohserv 


ation. 





The adjectives, or rather the substantives adjec- 
tives ending in eur which make their feminine in 
euse, are mostly derived from the verbs ; those 
which make eur into rice for the feminine, come 
generally from the Latin language. 

EXERCISE. 

She is decent. This house is well situated. This pear is 

Elle — Cette maison f. bien situe poire f. 

too ripe. She is tall and well formed. This story is very 

trop mur grand bien fait histoire f. tres- 



114 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

entertaining. This person is very volatile. This mountain is 

amusant personne f. bien leger montagne f. 

steep. This road is not very safe. The door is not open. 

escarpe route f. sur porte f. ouvert 

This room is dark. This street is too narrow. It is an ancient 

chambre f. obscur. rue f. etroit Ce 

custom. She has carnation. lips. His memory will be 

coutume f. a art. vermeil 2 levre i. pi. 1. Sa = f. sera 

immortal. His manners are natural. The engagement was warm. 

— te/ Ses manieres f. pi. wai/* action f. yitf vi/* 

(That is) an original thought. This cloth is the best of all. 

voila neu/2 pensee f. 1 etoff'e f. meilleur f. pi. 

They are delusive promises. He seduces by his fawning 

Ce des trompeur 2 promesse f. pi. 1 seduit par flatteur 2 

manners. The delightful valley of Tempe is in 

manieres f. pi. 1. delicieux vallec f. Tempe dans art. 

Thessaly. 
= f. 

The grass is very thick. That soup is very good, but too fat. 
herbe f. soupe f. mazs frqp 

It is a foolish undertaking. There is no truth in all that. 
sot entreprise f. // rCy a nul verite f. dans tout cela. 
This water is not clean. It is a very s£% history. It is in the 
eauf. net Ce 2 folS = f . 1 a 

newest fashion. It is a fine statue. The law is express upon that 
nouveau mode f. beau = f. hi f. swr 

point. He lives in a state of luxurious idleness. This wax is not 
— m. // vit dans * " ynou oisivete f. cire f. 

very white. She is as jftw,* as a rose. The paint on that 

* comme — f. peinture f. de 

wainscot is not dry. His answer is a mere evasion. The thing 
lambris m. reponse f. franc defaite f. cAose f. 

is public. That plant possesses a pernicious property. She is of 
herbe f. a ma/m 2 qualite f. 1. a * 

a benevolent character. The avenging thunderbolt smote that 

benin 2 humeur f. vengeur 2 foudre f. I frappa 

impious wretch. He extended to us a protecting hand. This 
impie m. * tendit 2 * wows 1 — teur 2 wiaiVi f. I 

woman is jealous and deceitful. His temper is mild. This 
femme f. jaloux faux Son humeur f. doux 

colour is too red. These old clothes are good for nothing. 
couleur f. trop roux hardes f. pi. ne a rien 



OF THE ADJECTIVE, 115 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL OF FRENCH ADJECTIVES. 

General Rule. — Every adjective, of whatever ter- 
mination, forms its plural by the mere addition of 
s, either in the masculine or the feminine, as bon, 
bons ; bonne, bomies ; poli^ polls; polie, polies. 
This rule is without any exception as to the femi- 
nine termination ; but the masculine has the two 
following: 

Exceptions. — 1st. The adjectives ending in s or #, 
do not change their termination in the plural mas- 
culine, as gros, gras, hideux, hideous, &c. 

2nd. Those ending in au, take x in the plural, 
and those ending in al, change this termination into 
aux, as beau, beaux ; nouveau, nouveaux ; egal, 
equal, egaux ; general, general, gentraux. 

But several adjectives ending in al have no plural 
masculine, as 



beneficial of a benefice 

brumal winterly 

diametral diametral 

experimental experimental 



mental mentJil 

patronal patronal 

zodiacal /belonging to 

zodiacal <^ the zodiac> 



Fatal, filial, final, nasal, natal, virginal, which 
are regular in the feminine gender, form their 
plural masculine by the addition of s to the singular, 
as fatal, m. sing., fatals, m. pi. ; filial, filials, &c. ; 
but boreal, canonial, labial, lingual, lustral, medical, 
vocal, that are also regular in the feminine gender, 
follow the general rule of the substantives ending in 
al, that is, they drop the I in the singular, and add 
ux in the plural masculine, as boreal, m. sing., 
boreaux, m. pi. — [Acad.) 

The adjective tout, all, makes tous in the plural. 
The monosyllables and words of two syllables, form 
their plural like the substantive, {vide page 90.) 



116 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



EXERCISE. 

They are envious and jealous. Those fowls are big and fat 
lis — poulet m. pi. 

Owls are frightful birds (There are) some 

art. Hibou m. pi. des hideux 2 oiseau m. pi. Voild de 

beautiful jewels. The two new operas have succeeded. 

beau bijou m. pi. deux nouveau — m. pi. ont reussi 

Men are only equal in the infirmities of nature. The 
art. 2 ne 1 que 4 3 par — art. — f. 

general officers are assembled. This fruit is excellent. 

— 2 officiers m. pi. 1 — ble — m. pi sont — 

His proficiency is slow, but solid. All his friends have been 
Ses progress m. pi. sont solide. ami m. pi. ont ete 

very glad to see him. Those ladies are tired with walking. You 
bien aise de voir 2 \e 1 dame f. pi. las de marcher Vous 

have powerful enemies, but their efforts will be vain and 
avez de ennemi m. pi. mais leurs — m. pi. seront — 

useless. The four cardinal points are the east, 

inutile quatre point m. pi. 1 orient m. art. 

west, south and north. 

Occident m. art. midi m. art. nord m. 

DEGREES OF SIGNIFICATION IN THE ADJECTIVE. 

Adjectives have three degrees of signification, 
viz. the positive, the comparative, and the super- 
lative. 

The positive is the adjective itself, without any 
increase or diminution, as beau, belle, &c. 

EXERCISE. 

A child gentle, aimable, and docile, is beloved by every body. 
enfant m. doux aimable — aime de tout le mondc 

An ingenuous candour, an amiable simplicity and a lively, 

ingenu 2 candeur f. I simplicite f. piquant 2 

(engaging artlessness) are all the charm of youth. The 

naivete f. 1 charme m, art. jeunesse f. 

sight of an agreeable landscape is a varied and rapid source of 

vue f. — reable paysage m. varie 2 rapide 3 f. 1 de 



delightful sensations. 
delicieux 2 f. pi. I 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 117 

2. The comparative is the adjective denoting com- 
parison between two things. When two things are 
compared, the one is either superior or inferior, or 
equal to the other; hence three sorts of comparison, 
viz. superiority, inferiority, and equality. 

The comparative of superiority is formed by 
putting plus, more, before the adjective, as la rose 
est plus belle que la violette, the rose is more beau- 
tiful than the violet ; que is expressed in English by 
than. 



The republic of Athens was more illustrious than that of 
republique f. Athenes a ete illustre celle 

Lacedemon. Homer was, perhaps, a greater genius than Virgil ; 
Lacedemone. Homere etait peut.-etre grand genie Virgile 

but Virgil had a more nice, and more refined taste than Homer. 
mais avait fin 2 delicat 3 gout m. 1 — h ni. 

Milton appears (to me) to be more sublime than all the other 

— parait 2 me 1 * — autre 1 
epic poets. 

epique 3 poele m. pi. 2 

The comparative of inferiority is formed by 
putting moins, less, or ne si, not so, before the ad- 
jective, as la violette est moms belle que la rose, the 
violet is less beautiful than the rose ; or, la violette 
nest pas si belle que la rose, the violet is not so 
beautiful as the rose; in the last example, que is 
rendered in English by as. 

EXERCISE. 

Shipwreck and death are less fatal than the pleasures 
art. Navfrage m. art. mort f. funede pi. art. pi. 

which attack virtue. Gross vice and brutish 

qui attaquent art. f. art. grossier 2 — m. 1 art. brutal 2 
impudence are not, sometimes, so dangerous as a modest beauty. 

— f . 1 quelquejois dangereux — te 2 beaute f. 1 



118 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

The violet is less glittering to the eye than the lily : a true 
— tte f. brillant f. ceil m. pi. lis m. * veritable 2 

emblem of modesty and pride. Autumn is not 

cmbleme 1 art. = f. art. orgueilm. art. automne m. & f. 

so varied as spring, but it is richer. 

variei. art. printempsm. elle riche 

The comparative of equality is formed by putting 
aussi, as, before the adjective ; as la tulipe est aussi 
belle que la rose, the tulip is as beautiful as the rose ; 
que is also expressed by as. 

EXERCISE. 

Pope's images are as perfect as his style is harmo- 
De Pope 2 art. f. pi. 1 parfait f. pi. son — m. harmo- 

nious. Delicacy of taste is a gift of nature as scarce 

rdeux. art. delicatesse f. art. don m. art. — rare 

as true genius. The phases of life in youth and 

art. vrai genie m. phase f. pi. art. art. f. pr. art. 

age appear as different as the face of nature in 

(dge avance) ont une apparence f. f. art. 

spring and winter, 

art. printemps m. pr. art. hiver h m. 

Observations. 

The word que, -than, serves to join the two objects 
compared. 

These three adjectives, meilleur, better, moindre, 
less, pire, worse, express by themselves a compa- 
rison. 

Meilleur is the comparative of bon, good^ and is 
instead of plus bon 9 which is not used, although we 
say aussi bon and moms bon. 

Moindre is the comparative of petit, little, and is 
instead of plus petit, which is also used. 

Pire is the comparative of mauvais, bad, and is 
instead of plus mauvais, which is equally used. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 119 

As the comparative adverbs mieux, pis, and moms 
are generally rendered by the same English words, 
better, worse, and less, it may be advisable to 
subjoin here those comparative adverbs, with their 
positives, that the difference of meaning may serve 
as a distinction. 

Mieux, better, is the comparative of bien, well, and 
is used instead of plus bien, more well, which is said 
in neither language. 

Pis is the comparative of mal, badly, and is used 
for plus mal, worse, which is also employed. 

Moins is the comparative of peu 9 little, and is 
used for plus peu, which is never said. 



EXAMPLES IN BOTH CASES. 
ADJECTIVES. 

Cejruit-la est bon, mats celui-ci est That fruit is good, but this Is 

meilleur better 

Sa condition est mauvaise, mais His condition is bad, but it has 

elle a ele pire been worse 

Ma depense est petite, mais la voire My expense is small, but yours is 

est moindre smaller 

ADVERBS*. 

II se conduit bien, mais sa sceur se He behaves well, but his sister 

conduit mieux behaves better 

11 s'est toujours mal porte, mais a He has always been unwell, but 

present il est pis que jamais now he is worse than ever 

Sije parle peu, vous parlez encore If I speak little, you speak still 

moins less 



His reasoning is not better than yours. Your style is 
Son raisonnement rn. le votre Votre m. 

* In the syntax of Adverbs, there are some useful observations upon mieux 
jns, and moins. 



120 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



(a great deal) better than that of his brother. The thickness oi 
de beaucoup* celui epaisseur f. 

this wall is less than that of the next wall. This column is 

ce murm. celle voisin 2 1 cette colonne f. 

less than the other in height and size. The remedy is 

autre en hauteur f. pr. grosseur f. remede m. 

worse than the disease. Your horse is worse than mine. He is 
malm. m. le mien va 

worse to-day than yesterday. 

adv. 

3. The adjective is in the superlative, when it 
expresses the quality in a very high, or in the 
highest degree ; hence we have two sorts of super- 
latives, the one absolute, and the other relative. 

The superlative absolute is formed by putting 
tres,fort, bien, very, extremement, extremely, &c, 
before the adjective, as Londres est une tres-belle 
ville, London is a very fine city; Paris est extre- 
mement peuple, Paris is exceedingly populous. We 
call it absolute, because it does not express any 
relation to another thing. 

EXERCISE. 

That landscape is much varied, very far extended, and infinitely 
Ce pay sage m. * etendre infiniment 

agreeable on every side. The Alps are very high and very steep 

de tout cote m. f. pi. hautL pi. escarpe f. -pi. 

The style of Fenelon is very rich and very agreeable, but it is some- 

— m. de — H quelque- 

times prolix ; that of Bossuet is extremely lofty, but it is sometimes 

fois — xe celui eleve 

narsh and rough. Fenelon, in painting nature, (would wish) 

dur rude en peignant art. — - voudrait 

to render all its beauties ; but Bossuet never paints 

* en rendre * art. f. pi. ne 1 jamais 4 peint 3 

it but in a mass. 

la 2 que en * masse, 

* Bien superieur a celui de son frere, far superior to that of his brother, is a 
better expression than " de beaucoup meilieur." 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 121 

The superlative relative is formed by putting the 
article le, either in its natural or contracted state, 
before the comparatives meilleur, 7noindre,pire, and 
the adverbs plus and moins, as Londres est la plus 
belle des villes, London is the finest of cities ; je 
pre/ere line maison de campagne au plus beau des 
palais, I prefer a country-house to the finest palace. 
We call it relative because it expresses a relation to 
another thing. Plus or moins, with the article, are 
repeated before every adjective. 

EXERCISE. 

The most beautiful comparison that is perhaps, 

f. comparaisoni. que il y ait subj.-l peut-etre 
in any language, is that which Pope has drawn from the Alps, 
dans aucun f . langue f. celle que tire f. de pi. 

in his Essay on Criticism. The picture of HippolitHs' 

dans son Essai sur art. Critique f. tableau m. 1 d'ffippolite 3 de 

death, in Racine's Phedra, is, in the opinion of 

art. f. 2. -pt.de 2 art. Phedre 1 a jugement m. 

many persons of taste, the finest piece of descriptive 

bien des personne f. pi. de morceau m. de descriptiff. 2 

and imitative poetry among the modern writers. The least 

imitatifi. 3 f. 1 parmi moderne pi. 

excusable of all errors is that which is wilful. 

— art. = eurs f. celle qui volontaire. 



AGREEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE WITH THE 
SUBSTANTIVE. 

Rule I. The adjective always agrees in gender 
and number with the substantive to which it relates. 

EXAMPLES. 

Le bon pere the good father I de beaux jar dins fine gardens 

la bonne mere the good mother | de belles promenades fine walks 

G 



122 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

Bon is in the masculine singular because pere is 
masculine, and in the singular , bonne is in the 
feminine singular because mere is feminine and in 
the singular; beaux is in the masculine plural, 
because jardins is masculine and in the plural, &c. 



EXERCISE. 

Hills covered with trees, loaded with fruit, 

Des coteau m. pi. couvert de arbre m. pi. charge de n*. pi. 

already ripe, and spread over with odoriferous plants ; a pure 

deja mur * * de odoriferant 2 plante f. pi. 1 2 

water, which rolls its limpid crystal in the midst of mea- 
eau f. qui route son limpide 2 cristal 1 a contr. milieu m. prai- 
dows enamelled with flowers ; a gloomy forest, whose 
rie f. pi. emaille de fieur f. pi. sombre foret f. dont art. 
delicious coolness carries into the senses an enchanting 

= 2 fraicheur f. 2 porfe */aras sews m. pi. enchanteur 2 
calmness ; (every thing) interests the heart, every thing attaches 
calme m. 1. tout inter esse cceur m. attache 2 

it in this abode full ? of allurements. Fly, inconsiderate 

V\ dans ce sejour m. plein d'attraitm. pi. Fuyez, inconsidere 2 

youth, fly from the enchanting allurements of a uam world ; 
jeunesse f . 1 * — tewr 2 attrait 1 — 2 monde m. 1 

its perfidious sweets are a 5/ow poison, which would destroy 
ses per fide 2 douceur f. pi. 1 lent 2 m. 1 gwi deiruiralt 

in your soul the noble enthusiasm of goodness, and 

dans dme enthousiasme m. art. contr. bien m. 

the precious seeds of sublime virtues, 
pre'cieux germe m. art. 2 verta 1 



Rule II. When the adjective relates to two sub- 
stantives singular of the same gender, it ought to 
be put in the plural, and agree with them in gender. 

EXAMPLE. 

he roi et le berger sont egaux apres la morL 

The king and the shepherd are equal after death. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 123 



Uprightness and piety are very much esteemed, even by 
art. droiture f. art. piete * estime f. pi. mime 

the wicked. A man in the most elevated 

de mediant pi. * art. the dans plus eleve 2 art. etat 1 

and a man in the most abject situation, are equally 

* art. the — 2 art. etat m. 1 egalement 

precious in the eyes of God. Pilpay and Confucius are very 

a contr. m. pi. Dieu. — — 

illustrious among the nations of Asia. 
= parmi peuple m. pi. art. Asie. 

Rule III. When the two substantives to which 
the adjective relates are of different genders, this 
adjective is to be put in the masculine plural. 

EXAMPLE. 

Mon pere et ma mere sont contents. 
My lather and mother are contented. 

EXERCISE. 

His* probity and disinterestedness are known (every where. ) 

Sa probite f. son desinteressement m. connu partout 
The love of life, and the fear of death, are natural to 
amour m. art. vie craintei. art. mortf. naturel 

man. Ignorance and self-love are equally pre- 

art* art. — art. amour-propre pre- 

sumptuous. My sister and brother were very attentive to the 
sumptueux. f. mon out ete atientif contr. 

instructions of their masters. 
— leur maitre m. pi. 



* The articles and possessive pronouns are generally repeated in 'French before 
every substantive. 



124 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLE AND THE 
ADJECTIVE. 

The Faults of Infancy.* 
Defaut m. pi. art. Enfance f. 

The amiable Louisa, and her young brother Charles, were 
Louise son jeune — etaient 

gentle, sensible, and clever. To the most interesting person, 
douce wr. r — spirituel — ssante 2 art. figure f. 1 

Louisa joined all the modesty, the happy candour, and 

Us joignaient Louise =» f. heureux ingenuite f. 

artless graces of her sex ; and Charles, the vivacity, the fire, 
naif '2 les — 1 sen sexem. =f. feum. 

and manly gracefulness of his. But these advantages, 

art. male agrement m. pi. du sien. cet wr. avantage m. pi. 

the precious gifts of nature, were obscured by 

* 2 dons 1 art. etaient un peu obscurci par des 

great defects. They were both inclined to 

essentiel 2 defaut m. pi. 1 etaient lun et V autre enclin art. 

idleness ; and, when they were contradicted liable to fits 
par 'esse f. lorsqu'on les contrariait sujetpl- des acces 

of pouting and ill humour. Faults are diseases of 

de bouderie f. de mauvais humeur f. art. faute des maladie 

the soul ; the cure of which is the work of time. 
guerison f. 2 dont 1 ouvrage art. temps m. 

In good dispositions, it is generally the fruit of the develope- 
Dans les dmes bien nees elle d'ordinaire fruit m. — m. 

ment of reason, and the desire of pleasing. Though their 
art. raison f. de contr. — r plaire. Quaque leur 

parents were persuaded (of this), they employed to 

— m. -pi. fussent 2 persuade 3 en 1 employaient ind- pour 

hasten it, an expedient which succeeded. If they were 

hater 2 la 1 moyen qui leur reussit ind-3. * 2 etaient 1 
satisfied with them, contentment and joy were painted in 
content 2 de eux 2 art. satisfaction f. avt.joie f. ind.-2 peint sur 
their countenances; if dissatisfied, they did not 

visage m. pi. * en etaient-ils mecontent ne les 

* The learner before writing the above exercise, ought to be already pretty 
well acquainted with the s,im pie tenses ol the verb to be. 

t Wr. shows that the foregoing word is printed wrong on purpose. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



125 



scold, but they received them with a sorrowful air, 

grondaient pas recevaient 2 les ] avec triste 2 regard m. 1 

a dejected countenance, and every sign of chagrin and 

abattu 2 maintien m. 1 tout art. slgnem. pi. art. m. 

trouble. Louisa and Charles were naturally good and 
de art. douleur f. ind. 2 naturellement 

sensible ; they could not long resist the idea of 

ne pouvaient long -temps 2 resister 1 a Videe de 
having afflicted such tender parents ; they felt their fault, 
avoir afflige des si lendre 2 1 sentaient faute f. 

burst into tears, and asked pardon. All was irame- 
fondaient en larme f. pi. demandaient — m. 2 ind. -2 me- 

diately forgotten, and contentment returned to them. 

sitot 1 oublie art. contentement renaissait autour de eux 

It was by this means that these amiable children soon 
Ce ind.-l-3par ces moyen m. pi. que enfans m. pi. bientot 

became models of docility, complaisance, and 

devinrent 3 1 des rnodele m. pi. de = f. pr. — f. pr. 

application. 



NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER. 

Numbers are divided into five classes, viz. cardinal, ordinal, collective 
distributive, and proportional. 



CARDINAL 
NUMBER. 


ORDINAL NUMBER. 


NUMERICAL COLLEC- 
TIVE NOUNS. 


1 un, une 


premier 


first 


unite, unit 


2 deux 


deuxieme, second 


2nd 


couple, pair e, couple 


3 trois 


tvohieme 


3rd 


trio 


4 quatre 


quatrieW 


4th 


(deux couples, two cou- 
( pies 


5 cinq 


cinquieme 


5th 





126 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



CARDINAL 


ORDINAL NUMBER. 


NUMBER. 






6 six 


sixieme 


6th 


7 sept 


septieme 


7th 


8 buit 


huitieme 


8th 


9 neu/ 


neuvieme 


9th 


10 dix 


dixieme 


10th 


11 onzt? 


onzieme 


11th 


12 douz<? 


douzieme 


12th 


13 treize 


tveizieme 


13th 


14 quatorze 


quatorzzewe 


14th 


15 quinze 


qninzi^TRe 


15th 


16 seize 


seizieme 


16th 


17 dix-sept 


dix-septieW 


17th 


18 dix-huit 


dix-huitieme 


18th 


19 dix-nei/ 


d\x-r\euvieme 


19th 


20 vingt 


\mgtieme 


20th 


21 vingt-et-un 


vmgt-et-mrieme 


21st 


22 vingt-deux 


vingt-deuxieme, &( 


j. 22d 


30 trente 


trejitieme 


80th 


Q1 trente-et- > 
^ un, &c. J 

40 quarante 


trente-umewie 


31st 


quarantine 


40th 


et-un, &c. j 


quarante-umeme 


41st 


50 cinquante 


cinquantiewze 


50th 


~. cin quant eO 
^ et-un, &c.J 


cinquante-umewie 


51st 


60 soixante 


soixantoeme 


60th 


£, soixante- ") 
bl et-un, &c. J 


soixarte-um'eW 


61st 


70 soixante-dix 


soi xante- dixz erne 


7t0h 


71 soixante-onze 


soixante-onzzewe 


71st 


80 quatre-vingt 


quatre- vingtzem.? 


80th 


S1 quatre- -* 
c vingt-un J 


quatre-\ingt-iin2eme81st 


quatre- « 
vmgt-dix J 


quatre-vingt-dix- 




ieme 


90th 


g, quatre- "1 
vingt-onzej 


quatre-vingt-onz- 




ieme 


91st 



NUMERICAL COLLEC- 
TIVE NOUNS. 



{demi-douzame, half-a- 
dozen 

huitaine, week 

{neuvaine, nine days of 
prayer 
dixaine, half a score 

douzaine, dozen 



quiiizaine, fortnight 



vingiaine, a score 



{trentaine, a score and 
a half 



quarantaine, two score 



{dvquantaine, two 
score and a half 



soixantaine, three score 



— four score 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



127 



CARDINAL 
NUMBER. 


ORDINAL NUMBER. 


NUMERICAL COLLEC- 
TIVE NOUNS. 


100 cent 


centieme 100th 


1 centaine, 1 hundred 


101 cent " 1 
1U1 un, &c/ 

OQ0 deux- 1 

cents J 

1000 mille 


cent- unitize, &c. 101st 




deux-centieme 200th 


2 centaines, 2 hundred 


millieme 1 000th 


1 millier, 1 thousand 


«**> a } 


deux-milheme, 
&c. 2000th 


2 milliers, 2 thousand 


10 '°o° mm, } 


dix-milhme 10,000th 


1 myriade, 1 myriad 


1,000,000 million 


milliomme millionth 


1 million, 1 million 



Un milliard, or billion, a thousand millions, un trillion, &c. 



The formation of the ordinal number from the 
cardinal, does not require any explanation, except 
that -unibne is only found in compound numbers, 
where premie?* and second are inadmissible. 

When mentioning the days of the month, the 
French make use of the cardinal instead of the 
ordinal number, and say le onze d'Avril, not le 
onzibne, &c, le vingUcinq du mois prochain, and not 
le vingt-cinquieme, &c, except, however, that instead 
of Vim du mois, they say le premier, the first day of, 
&c, and sometimes le second, though not so well, 
for le deux; but this mode proceeds no farther. 

Cent never takes s in the plural when followed by 
another number. — (See partic. Syntax of the adjec- 
tive ; of number, p. 418.) 

Mille never takes s in the plural, thus, vingt 
mille is twenty thousand, and not vingt milles, 
which would mean twenty miles ; arid when men- 
tioning the Christian iEra, it is customary to curtail 
this word into mil, and to write, for example, Van 
mil huit cent quar ant e- deux, and never Van mille, &c. 



128 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

There are many other numerical expressions used 
in poetry, music, games, &c. as distique, tercet, qua- 
train, sixain, huitain, &c, solo, duo, trio, quatuor, 
quinque, quinte, octave, &c, beset, sonnez, &c. 

Un millier is very often employed for one thou- 
sand weight, but quintal is never used except in the 
sense of one hundred weight. 

The distributive numbers are those which express 
the different parts of a whole, as la rnoitie, the half, 
le quart, the quarter ; an cinquieme, a fifth, &c. 

The proportional denote the progressive increase 
of things, as le double, the double ; le triple, the 
treble ; le centuple, a hundred-fold, &c. 



CHAPTER IV. 
OF THE PRONOUN. 

The Pronoun is a word which supplies the place 
of a noun. 

There are different kinds of pronouns, viz. per- 
sonal, possessive, relative, absolute, demonstrative, 
and indefinite. 

§ i. 

OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal pronouns are those which denote the 
persons. 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 129 

There are three persons ; the first is that who 
speaks ; the second is that to whom one speaks ; 
and the third, that of whom one speaks. 

The pronouns of the first person areje, I, moi, 
me, for the singular, and nous, we or us, for the 
plural. They are of both genders, that is, mascu- 
line if it be a man that speaks, and feminine if it be 
a woman ; as, je me promene, I walk ; regardez-moi, 
look at me; parlez de moi, speak of me ; nous nous 
promenons, we are walking. 

Observe that me is used instead of a moi, or moi, 
as il me dit, that is, il dit a moi ; il me regarde, 
that is, il regarde moi, he looks at me. 

Observation. 

In general, je and me are put before the verb, 
moi after it, and nous before, but sometimes after it 

EXERCISE. 

I cast my eyes upon the objects which surrounded 
portai ind.-3 vue f. sur objet qui environnaient 2 

me, and saw with pleasure that all was calm and tranquil. Do 
me 1 je vis avec que md.-2calme — Ue 

you not see in all the features of my father that he is 

2 pas 3 ne voyez 1 dans trait m. pi. que 

satisfied with me ? We have told the truth. What were they 

content de moi avons dit veritei. Que * on 2 

saying of us ? If we desire to be happy, we must not 
disait 1 Si desirons de ne devons pas nous 

deviate from the path of virtue. 
ecarter de contr. chemin m. art. 

The pronouns of the second person are tu, thou ; 
te, toi, thee, for the singular, and votes, you, for the 
plural. They are of both genders, that is, mascu- 
line if it be a man to whom one speaks, and femi- 

g2 



130 CF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

nine, if it be a woman ; as tu te promene, thou 
walkest; regarde-toi, look at thee ; on parte de toi, 
one speaks of thee ; vous vous promenez, you walk. 

Observe that te instead of a toi, or toi, as on te 
dit, that is, on dit a toi, one tells thee ; on te regarde, 
that is, on regarde toi, one looks at thee. 

Through politeness, we say, vous, you, instead of 
tu, thou, in the singular, as vous etes Men bon et 
Men honnete, you are very good and very polite. 
This last observation applies also to the English 
language. 

Observation. 

In general, tu and te are put before the verb ; 
toi after ; and vous before, but sometimes after it. 



EXERCISE. 

Thou art greater than I : and from thee I have (at once) 

es moi toi ai en meme temps 2 

derived humility and wisdom. I (was telling) thee that 

appris 1 art. = f. art. sagesse f. Je 1 disais 3 te 2 que 

dancing is to the body what taste is to the mind. You 

art. danse f. m. ce que art. m. m. 

have shown us great talents ; when shall you show us 
avez2montreS I de — m. quand 3 montrerez2 1 de 

great virtues ? How amiable you are ! How good you are to have 
f. pi. Que 3 12 2 1 de vous 

thought of us! It was said of you the other day, that you 
£tre occupe On disait autre jour m. vous 

intended to spend a winter in London (in order to) see every 
vous proposiez de passer m. a — res pour voir tout 

thing curious which that city affords. 
ce 5 que 1 cette 3 ville 3 offre de 4. 

The pronouns of the third person are il, he ; elle, 
she ; luh to him or her ; le, him, it ; la, her, it, for 
the singular ; and Us, elles, they ; eux, les, them ; 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUN3. 131 

leur, to them, for the plural. 77, le, Us, and eux, 
are always masculine ; elle, la, and elles, always 
feminine ; lui, leur, and les, masculine or feminine, 
according to the gender of the person spoken of. 

Observe that lui is instead of a lid, a elle, as je 
lid par le, may signify je parle a lui, I speak to him, 
or je parle a elle, I speak to her. Le is for lui, and 
la for elle, asje le vois, that is, je vois lui, I see him ; 
je la vois, that i$,je vois elle, I see her. Leur is for 
a eux, a elles, &sje leur parle, may signify je parle a 
eux, I speak to them (men), je parle a elles, I speak 
to them (women). Les is for eux or elles, as je les 
vois, may signify je vois eux, I see them (men) ; or 
je vois elles, 1 see them (women). 

Observations. 

1. All the personal pronouns je, tu, il, nous, vous, 
Us, and elle, elles, when subjects, are put after the 
verb in interrogations, as 



(7'e I 

) tu th 

Z Ul hi 

{.elk sh 



I dois-]e payer? must I pay? 
i thou as-tu dit ? hast thou said? 

" | il he chante-t-il blen ? does he sing well ?* 
<-elle she travaille-t-eWe? does she work? 



The same observation applies to nous, vous, Us, 
elles, as irons-nous? shall we go? viendrez-vous? 
will you come? chantent-ils? &c. 

2. All personal pronouns, when subjects, are 
placed before their verbs, except in interrogative 
sentences, and most of them likewise when objects 
precede them, except m the imperative affirmative ; 
but the objective, eux, elles, lui for le, and moi, toi, 
soi, with one exception of this last, in soi-disant, 

* The letter t between two hyphens, is placed there by euphony, for the sake of 
softening the sound. 



132 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

styling himself, are invariably placed after the verbs 
by which they are governed. 

//, elle, Us, elles, and the objective pronouns are, 
in general, to be placed before the verb, except 
in some cases, which will be mentioned in due time. 



EXERCISE. 

He loved them, because they were mild, attentive, and grate- 
aimait m. parceque ind.-2 doux, = recon- 

ful. He (was saying) to them, do you not know that the 
naissant disait 2 1*2 savez 1 que 

property of merit is to excite envy? She often exhorted 

propre m. art. mfaite de — ter art. envie f. souvent 2 exhortait 
me to the study the most useful, that of the human heart. They 

etude f. utile celle 2 coeur 1 

make us love virtue, more by their examples than by their 

font 2 1 aimer art. par leurs exemple 

words. What has been said of them? Did they speak of 
parole f. pi. Que I on 3 2 * dit eux * on 2 parlait 1 

them ? Do you not see her ? With what pleasure she plays. 
elles * 4 ne 1 uoz/ez 3 2 gweZ Jo we. 



Rule. The pronouns il, elle 3 Us, elles, ought to 
be in the same gender and number as the nouns of 
which they supply the place. 

Thus, in speaking of the rose, say elle a un 
parfum exquis, aussi est-elle la Jleur la plus recher- 
chee, it has an exquisite perfume, and therefore it is 
the most sought after of all the flowers, because the 
pronoun elle relates to rose, which is feminine and 
in the singular ; and in speaking of several ladies 
replete with amiable qualities, say, elles out autant 
de modestie que de beaute, d'esprit et de grace, they 
have as much modesty as they have beauty, wit, 
and graces ; because the pronoun elles relates to 
dames, which is feminine, and in the plural. 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



133 



(Look at) that magnificent building; it unites gracefulness 

Regardez ce magnifique bdtiment m. reunit art. grace f. 
to beauty, and elegance to simplicity. Ignorance is 

art. = art. — f. art. = art. — f. 

jealous, presumptuous, and vain ; it sees difficulties in nothing, 
jaloux — tueux — elle ne voit de f. pi. a rien 

is surprised at nothing, and stops at nothing. Let us 

elle ne s'etonne de ne sarrete 

gather these roses : Heavens ! what a sweet perfume they exhale ! 
cueillons ce — Ciel ! quel * doux parfum f. exhalent 

Never judge from appearances, they are often deceitful : the 
Ne jamais jug ez sur les apparence f. pi, f. trompeur 

wise man examines them, and does not decide upon them, 
sage * examine 2 les 1 * ne se decide d'apres que 

till he has had time to fix his judgment. 
lorsque a eu art, de fixer jugement. 



REFLECTED AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS OF THE 
THIRD PERSON. 



Singular* 



r . ("with a preposi- 
S0l \ tion 



\ governed by the 



verb 



se for 



fa soi, a lui- 
[ meme 



a elle-meme 

ha- 



9. / se 

'•£' \ i soL or 

O \se ..A ' a 
| (. meme 

j jsoi, or elle- 

"\ meme 



Examples. 

\chacun tire k soi \ eye ,7 °" e d™" t0 
J (. himself 

CVegoismefaUqu^on C e ^ 0tism makes a 

\ ne voit %ue< P erso \ , se , e 

I soi / n( £ e but hm ~ 

V self 

fil se donne des The gives himself 

X louanges \ praises 

J elle se fait Ufa- j she imposes on 

\ sion \ herself 

>il se perd he ruins himself 

Xelle sejlatte she flatters herself 



134 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



for 



Plural, 
a eux-memes 

.. a elles-memes 

.. Tun a t autre 

. » eux-memes 
.. elles-memes 

. . Tun et I" autre 

( les wis, les 
' ' \ autres 



{its s'attribuent la 
gloire de, Sfc. 

elles se prescri- 
vent pour regie 
de, 8fc. 



Us s'entredonnent, 
ou sefont des ca 
deaux 

fils se sont desho- 

\ nores 



Examples. 

rthey attribute to 

< themselves the 

i glory of, &c- 

they prescribe to 

themselves as a 

rule to, &c. 



{' 
; } 



they exchange gifts 



{they have disgraced 
themselves 



dies se sont flatties I thf T havl ! fla,tered 
J tnemselves 



lis s'entr'aident 

[les rats, dii-on s'era- 
| tre-devorent 



\ 

{they help one ano- 
ther 
{rats, it is said, eat 
each other 



Remark. Se is always placed before the verb, 
and soi after a preposition. 



EXERCISE. 

In a thousand instances we do not watch sufficiently over 

* mille occasion f. on * veiUe assez sur 

ourselves. The glory of the world (passes away) in an instant. 

soi = f. mondem. s'evanouit en — m. 

He gives himself (a great deal) of trouble. She tires herself. 

donne se heaucoup peine f. lasse se 

People should (very seldom) speak of themselves. Virtue is 

On doit rarement parler soi art. f. 

amiable in itself. We must take upon ourselves the care of our 
de soi On doit prendre sur soi soin m. ses 

own affairs. 
propre affaire f. pi. 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



135 



OF THE PRONOUN RELATIVE en. 



en for | 



de hi of bim 



(Telle of her 



of them 



d'elles of them 



de cela* 



"of that 
or of it 



aVici hence 



de la thence 



I 

CvoiL 
Con 

\ » 

v- si 

{ 

Cvous G 
v en v 



cet komme vous 
plait, vous en 
parlez souvent 

-je ne crois pas 
cette Jemme sin- 
cere ; je m'en 
me fie 

ces fruits parais- 
sent bons, j'en 
manger ais volon- 
tiers 

Cvoild de belles oran- 
voulez-vous 
men donner ? 



ne m a pas 
-ompe,fen suis 
sur 

il arriva ici comme 
fen partais 



[vous allez a Pa- 
et monsieur 
en vient 



fthat man pleases 
■s you, you speak 
v of him often 
f X do not believe 
J that woman sin- 
1 cere, I distrust 
^ her 

rthese fruits look 
J good, I should 
J like to eat some 
>■ of them 
/-these are beauti- 
) ful oranges, will 
j you give me 
v. some ? 

Cl have not been 
< imposed upon, I 
(. am sure of it. 
The arrived here as 
■I I was setting off 
v. from hence. 
ryou are going to 
J Paris, this gen- 
") tleman comes 
v. from thence. 



OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN, OR ADVERB y. 



Yfor 



a lui to him 

a eUe to her 

a eux to them 

a elles to them 



{c'est un honnete 
homme,fiez-vous y 
{cette raison est so- 
lide, je m'y rends 
fees argumens sont 
\ pressa?is,je n'y vois 
^point de replique 
faccablede vos civi- 
J lites, je ne sais 
) comment y re- 
^ pondre 



fhe is an honest 
t man, trust to him 
/that reason is good, 
L I yield to it 
/-these arguments 
3 are cogent, I see 
(. no reply to them 
floaded with your 
J civilities, 1 do not 
J know how to ac- 
^ knowledge them 



136 



OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 



a cela to it 



y for/ id 



m 



here 



there 



rfai eprouve cette 
J perte quand fy 
(^ pensais le moins 
Cnous partons de 
-\ Londres quand 
V. vous y venez 
C&est un endroit 
•\ charmant, je 
v compte m'y fixer 



I experienced that 
loss when I least 
thought of it. 
we set off from 
London when you 
come hither 
it is a fine place, I 
intend to settle 
there 



Remark. Y and en are always put before the 
verb, except with the imperative affirmative, in the 
first and second persons. 



EXERCISE. 

They speak (a great deal) of it. You like French 

On parle beaucoup aimez art. Francais 2 

authors ; you are always speaking of them. That is a delicate 
auteur 1 * 2 parlez 1 Ce delicate 

affair; the success of it is doubtful. See them; I consent to 
= f . 1 success m. douteux Voyez 1 consens 3 

it} but do not trust them. That is a fine appointment ; he had 

* 1 5 vous 2fiez 4 y 3 Ce charge f. * 

long aspired to it. He has done it, but he will get 

depuis long- temps 3 — rait 2 1 a fait ne 1 gagnera 3 

nothing % it. 

rien 4 y 2 



§ii. 



OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 



These pronouns denote the possession. When we 
say man habit, my coat ; votre maison, your house ; 
son jar din, his or her garden ; it is the same as 
saying V habit qui est a moi, the coat which belongs 
to me ; la maison qui est a vous, the house which 



OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, 



137 



belongs to you ; le jar din qui est a lid or a elle, the 
garden which belongs to him or to her. 

There are two sorts of possessive pronouns, the 
conjunctive and the relative. 

CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS RELATING TO ONE PERSON. 



Singular 




Plural, 


("first person mon m. 

for the - } second ■ ■ ton m. 

v. third son m. 


ma f. 
ta f. 
sa f. 


mes m. f. my 
tes m. f. thy 
ses m. f. his, her, its 



CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS RELATING TO SEVERAL PERSONS. 



Singular 

C first person notre m. f. 

for the-! second voire m. f. 

(.third leur m. f. 



Plural 

nos m. f. our 

vos m. f. your 

leurs m. f. their 



N. B. — These possessive pronouns in French 
always agree in gender and number with the object 
possessed, and not with the possessor as in English, 
for which reason they must be repeated before every 
noun. 



EXAMPLES. 



Mon pere, ma mire, et mes freres 
sont a la campagne avec vos 
amis et leurs enfans 

Mon cousin est alle consoler sa 
sceur, qui a perdu son fils 



My father, mother, and brothers 
are in the country, with your 
friends and their children 

My cousin is gone to visit and 
console his sister, who has lost 
her son 



Mon, ton, son, are also used before a noun femi- 
nine, when beginning with a vowel or h mute ; thus, 
mon dine, my soul ; ton humeur, thy humour ; son 
amitie, his friendship ; must be said instead of ma 
dme, ta humeur, sa amitie. 



138 OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 



EXERCISE. 

My principles, my love of retirement, my taste for 

— pe gout m. pour art. retraite f. amour m. 

(every thing) that (is connected) with learning, and my 

tout ce qui tient a art. instruction 

detestation of all spirit of party, (everything) has induced me 
haine f. h asp. pour esprit parti tout a porte 

to prefer a life passed in the closet, to the active life of 

preferer * art. vie f. * de * cabinet = 2 f . 1 

the world. Do not think, my daughter, that thy candour, thy in ge- 
rm pense que = f. inge- 
nuousness, thy taste, so delicate and so refined, and even thy graces, 
nuitef. m. — cat Jin meme — 
can shelter thee from censure. His wit, 
puissent mettre a Vabri de art. — f esprit m. 

his talents, his honesty and even his (good nature) make him 

— m. honnetete f. h m. meme. bonhomie f. font 
beloved by every body. Our constancy and our efforts will 

aimer de tout le monde = f . — m. * 

(at last) surmount all obstacles. I see nothing that 

enfin 2 surmonteront 1 art. — m. pi. vois 2 we 1 rien 3 que 
can (be censured) in your conduct. Their taste for the 
on puisse reprendre dans conduite f. pour 

fantastical, the monstrous and the marvellous, gives to all their 
bizarre m. monstrueux m. merveilleux m. donne 

compositions, although very fine in themselves, an air of defor- 

— f. quoique en elles-memes — m. diffor- 
mity, w T hich shocks at first sight. 

mite f. qui choque a art. coup d'ozil 



POSSESSIVE RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATING ONLY TO ONE PERSON, 
m. S. f. S. 

1st person le mien la mienne 

2nd — le tien la tienne 

3rd le sien la sienne 



m. pi. 


f.pi. 




les miens 


les miennes 


mine 


les dens 


les tiennes 


thine 


les siens 


les siennes 


his her its 



OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. J 39 



POSSESSIVE RELATIVE PRONOUNS RELATING TO SEVERAL PERSONS. 



m. s. 
first person le notre 


f. s. 
la notre 


pi. of both genders 
Its notres ours 


second le voire 

third le leur 


la votre 
la leur 


les votres yours 
les leurs theirs 



N. B. — The real use of these pronouns is to spare 
the repetition of the nouns, which have been ex- 
pressed a little before*. 



EXAMPLE. 



Avez-vous toujours votre cheval? Have you still your horse? I 
je nai plus le mien, have disposed of mine 



Is it your temper or hers that hinders you from living well 
ce humeur f. qui empeche de vivre 

together ? If it be yours, it is easy for you to remedy it, 

ensemble ce est il 2 aise 3 * 1 de porter remede y 

by mastering (your temper) ; if it be hers, redouble your 
en prenant sur vous-meme ce redoublez de * 

complaisance, attention, and good behaviour; it is very 
— de — de procede m. pi. il ires- 

seldom that this method (proves unsuccessful). If my friends 
rare ce moyen ne reussisse pas Si 

had served me with the same zeal as yours, it is very certain 
avaient servi mime zele m. que il tres-sur 

that I (should have) succeeded : but yours have been all fire, and 

aurais reussi ont ete de 

mine all ice. All the pictures which we expected from Rome 

de glace tableau m. que attendions 

are arrived; there are some that are a little damaged; but yours, 
arrives il y en a qui pen endommages 

his, and mine are in good condition. We know perfectly well 
en etatm. savons parfaitement * 



* Therefore, we cannot begin writing a letter in these words : fai recu la votre, 
8)C, I have received yours, &c, because the word letter has not yet been expressed. 



140 OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

what are your amusements in town, and I assure you, we 

quels — a art. ville f. — que 

are very far from envying you them ; but if you knew 
sommes bien eloigne pi. envier 3 1 2 connaissiez 

ours in the country, it (is most likely) you 

quels sont a campagne f. il y a toute apparence que 

(would not be long) in giving them the preference. You have 
ne tarderiez pas a donner leur — f. avez 

opened your heart to me with that noble frankness w r hich so well 

ouvert — franchise qui si 2 3 

becomes an honest man ; this confidence well deserves mine. 

sied 1 a honnete conjiance f. 2 merile 1 

Remark. When vous is used instead of tu, then 
votre, vos, must take the place of ton, ta, tes ; and le 
votre, la votre^ les votres, be used for le tien, la tienne, 
les tie?is, les Henries. 

EXAMPLES. 

Que vous ressemblez peu a vos an- How little you resemble your 

cetres ! ancestors ! 

Quand vous aurez entendu nos When you have heard our reasons, 

raisons, nous ecouterons les votres we will listen to yours 



§ in. 

OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Relative pronouns are those which relate to a 
noun preceding them ; when we say, Vhomme qui 
joue, the man who plays, qui relates to the substan- 
tive homme. The word to which qui relates, is 
called antecedent ; in the above example, Vhomme 
is the antecedent of the relative qui* 

There are six relative pronouns, viz., qui, who or 

* The antecedent of the relative qui, may be either a noun or pronoun. 



OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 14] 

which, or that; que, whom or which, or that; 
lequel, which, dont, whose, or of w T hich ; quoi, what, 
and oil, where, whither, &c. 

Qui and que are of both genders and numbers 

Rule. The relative pronouns qui and que always 
agree with their antecedents in gender, number, 
and person. 

EXAMPLES. 

Moi qui* suis son fils I who am his son. 

toi qui est sijeune thou who art so young 

Venfant quijoue the child who plays 

nous qui etudions we who study 

vous qui riez you who laugh 

les livres qui instruisent the books which instruct 

In the first example, qui is in the singular, and 
of the first person, because the pronoun moi is in 
the singular, and of the first person. In the second, 
it is in the singular, and of the second person, for 
a similar reason ; and moreover, it is masculine if 
it be a boy that is spoken to, and feminine if it be 
a girl, &c. 

It is the same with que ;f Venfant que je demande, 
the child whom I ask; la promenade que Jaime, 
the walk which I like ; les homines quejestime, the 
men whom I esteem, &c. 

EXERCISE. 

I who did not suspect (so much) falsehood, cunning, 

Moi * soupgonnais pas taut de faussete f. pr. ruse f. 

and perfidy, in a man whom I loved, blindly followed his 

pr. perfidie f. aimais, je aveuglement 2 suivis 1 ses 

counsels. Thou who art candour and innocence itself, 

conseil m. pi. art. — dcur art. — meme 

* Qui is subject of the verb following, t Que is the object of the verb following. 
Qui as subject, governs the verb. Que as object is governed by the verb. 



142 OR RELATIVE PRONOUNS, 

confide not too lightly. The great empire of the Egyptians 

ne te confie pas trop — Eyyptien 

which Sesostris founded, and which was (as it were) detached 

obj. — fonda ind.-3 subj. ind.-3 comme detache 

from all others was not of long duration. We who know 

art. nefut pas — duree f. connaissons 

the value of time ought to make a good use (of it), 

prix m. art. temps nous devons hid. -1 * /aire 2 emploi en 1 

instead of wasting it in idleness and frivolity. What 

ou lieu de perdre 2 le 1 dans art. oisivete f. art. inutilite quoi 

is it you, my daughter, who would wish that I should love you 
ce fille voudriez aimais 2 1 

less? The greatest men, who were the ornament and glory 

moins 3 furent ornement art. yloire 

of Greece, Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, even Lycurgus and 

art. Grece f. Homere, Pythagore, Platon, Lycurgue 

Solon, those two celebrated legislators, went to learn 

— ces celebre legislateur allerent * apprendre art. 

wisdom in Egypt. (Everything) in the universe alters and 
sagesse f. en Egypte. tout univers s'altere 

perishes, but the writings which genius has dictated, shall 

perit ecrit que le — ie a dicte pi. 

be immortal. The art of rendering the bodies sound and robust, 

— tel rendre corps sain —te 

which our carelessness has made us lose, was well known to 
obj. nonchalance f. 2 fait 3 1 perdre etait connu de 

the ancients. A power which terror and force have 

pi. ancien puissance f. obj. art. terreur f. art. — f. ont 

founded cannot be of long duration. 
fonde f. ne pent — f. 

Lequel takes both genders and numbers, according 
to circumstances; les places auquelles il aspire, the 
places to which he aspires ; les revenus sar lesquels 
vons comptez, the incomes upon which you reckon. 

Observation. 

The article le is so strictly united with the word 
queh that they form together but one and the same 
word, either in its natural or in its contracted state ; 



OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS 143 

we say, lequel, duquel, auquel, in the masculine sin- 
gular; laquelle, de laquelle, a laquelle, in the femi- 
nine singular ; lesquels, desquels, aux quels, for the 
masculine plural ; and lesquelles, desquelles, aux- 
quelles, for the feminine plural. 

Dont is for de qui, or duquel. Uhomme dont 
(de qui) vous parlez, the man of whom you speak ; 
la Tamise dont (de laquelle) le lit, &c, the Thames, 
of which the channel, &c. ; it is of both genders and 
of both numbers, relating either to animate or 
inanimate things. 



Persons of a middle condition have not the same need 
art. f. pi. commun 2 — f . I rCont pas meme besoin m. 

of being cautioned against the dangers to which ele- 

inf. 1 precautionne f. pi. contre eeueilm. pi. art. 

vation and authority expose those who are destined to 

— f. art. autorite 1. exposent ceux destine pi. 

govern mankind. The protection on which he relied 

gouverne art. homme pi. — f . sur comptait ind.-2 

has been too weak. It is a condition without which he will do 
ete trop faible Ce — f. f. il ne vout 1 3 

nothing. The satire which you have mentioned to me, (has not 
rien 2 f. dont 1 avez parle 4*2 n'a pas 

even) the merit of malignity. It is the thing (in the) world 

meme — te art. mechancete f. c'est f. du 

that I least care for. 

dont le moins 2je me soucie 1 * 

Qicoi is for lequel or laquelle, preceded by a 
preposition ; la chose a quoi (a laquelle) on pense le 
moins, the thing of w^hich we think the least. 

N. B. — Quoi never relates to pronouns. 

Ou, dou, and par ou, are of both genders and 
numbers, according to circumstances, as voila 
le but ou il tend, that is the butt of his aim ; cest 
une chose d'oii depend le honheur public, it is a thing 



144 OF ABSOLUTE PRONOUNS. 

upon which public happiness depends; les lieiix par 
oil il a passe, the places through which he has 
passed. 



That after which a true philosopher sighs most ardently 

Ce quoi — phe soupire art. ardemment 

is to spread that sentiment of universal benevolence which 

de repandre ce — de — set bienveillance f. subj. 

should unite and (bring together) all men. The only moments 
devrait unir rapprocher art. seul instant m. pi. 

which he can spare to his pleasure, are those which he devotes 

qu'il a de librcs pour ceux obj. consacre 

to study. 

art. etude 



§ iv, 



ABSOLUTE PRONOUNS. 

Absolute pronouns are so called, because they 
never have any relation to an antecedent ; they are 
generally used in an interrogation. These are, qui, 
que, quel, quoi, and lequel, m., laquelle, f. 

Qui is for quelle personne, what person ; or qui 
est-ce qui, who is it that ; as qui vous a dit cela ? 
who told you that? that is, qui est-ce qui, or quelle 
per sonne vous a dit cela ? 

Que and quoi are for quelle chose, what thing ; as 
que (quelle chose) diUon ? what do they say ? a quoi 
(a quelle chose) s'occupe-t-on ? what are they about? 
If they be followed by an adjective, the word de is 
put before that adjective, as Que dii-on denouveau ? 
what news is there ? Quoi de plus amusant et de plus 
instructif? what more amusing and instructive ? 

N. B.- — Qui applies only to persons, and que and 
quoi to things. 



OF ABSOLUTE PRONOUNS. 145 



EXERCISE. 

Who will not agree that life has few real pleasures, and 

convenir que art. f. peu de vrai 

many dreadful pains ? What have you read in that book 
beaucoup* de affreux 2 f. pi. 1 lu ce m. 

that can have raised in your soul agitation and enthu- 

puisse avoir porie art. — art. enthou- 

siasm? In what did you find them occupied? What have you 
siasme a * trouvdtes-vous 2 1 occwpem.pl. 

remarked good, beautiful, and sublime in Hesiod, Homer, 
remarque de pr. beau pr. — Hesiode, — re 

Theocritus and Sophocles? What more brilliant, and, at the same 

Theocrite Sophocle Quoi de hrillant en * 

time, more false than the expressions of a man, who has (a great 
de — beau- 

deal) of wit, but wants judgment? What more blind 
coup de esprit qui manque de de aveugle 

than envy or hatred? 

art. envie ou art. haine h asp. 

Quel always precedes a substantive, with which 
it agrees in gender and number : it generally 
expresses admiration. Quelle instabilite dans les 
choses huma'mes! what instability in human affairs ! 

Lequel, duquel, auquel, &c, are used to make a 
distinction between several objects. 



What then must have been that extraordinary man (to whom) 
Quel 1 done 3 doit 2 cet extraordinaire 2 1 auquel 

seven cities dispute the glory of having given birth ? 

ville f. pi. se sont dispute de inf.-l art. jour m 

What gracefulness, what delicacy, what harmony, what colouring, 
grace f. delicate sse = coloris m. 

what beautiful lines in Racine ! Which do you prefer of those 
vers m. lequel * 2 prefer ez de 

pictures ? I cannot tell you. 
tableau m. pi. je ne saurais dire 3 1 le 2 

* We say beaucoup de and Men des. 
H 



146 OF DEMONSTATIVE PRONOUNS 

OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, &C. 

Demonstrative pronouns are those which point, 
as it were, to the objects spoken of. These are 

Singular. Plural. 



m. f. 

ce, cet* cette this or that 

celui celle this or that 

celui-ci celle-ci this 

celui-ld celle-ld that 



rj zz si tiiesewno P iurai ' 



m. f. 

ces ces these or those 

ceux celles these or those 

ceux-ci celles-ci these 

ceux-ld celles-ld those 



{ce before a consonant ce livre this book 

ce ... an h aspirated ce heros that hero 

cet ... a vowel cet enfant this child 

cet ... an h mute cet homme that man 

fern. cette ... any feminine noun cette femme that woman 

cette time that soul 

cette histoire that history 

ces before any noun plural") ces hommes these men 

of both genders . j ces femmes these women 



f when without a noun,"! (qui est-ce ? "| who is it ? 

j < intimates a person, Vas < ce que je vous >what I tell 

l_ or thing spoken of J (_ dis est vrai J is true 



EXERCISE. 



Nothing is so opposite to that true eloquence, the office 
Ne 2 Hen 1 oppose veritable — f. fonction f. 2 

(of which) is to ennoble (everything), as the use of 

1 del ennoblir 3 tout 2 * que emploi m. 

those refined thoughts, and hunting after those light, airy, 

fin 2 pensee f . 1 art. recherche f. de leger 2 delie 3 

unsolid ideas, which, like a leaf of beaten metal, 

sans consistance 4 idee f. 1 comme feuille f. battu 2 — m. 1 

acquire brightness only by losing part of*their soli- 

ne pr en vent de art. eclat m. que en perdant art. 



OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. \<\J 

dity. This man has nothing in common with that hero. This 

= t, h m. de commun h asp, 1 

long restrained hatred broke, and was the unhappy 

longtemps 3 contenu 4 haine f. 2 eclata Jut malheureux 
source of those dreadful events. It is a great pleasure 

— f. terrible evenement m. pi. Ce plaisir m. 
to me. It was a great pain to us. 
fut deplaisir m. nous. 



Observations. 

1. Of ce and the personal pronoun lid, we have 
made celui, which makes celle in the feminine 
singular, ceux in the masculine plural, and celles in 
the feminine plural. It is not a demonstrative 
pronoun of itself, but only when it is joined to the 
two following ones, ci and la, as celui-ci, celui-la, m., 
celle-ci, celle-la, f. 

N. B. — The first denotes the nearest object, and 
the second, the farthest. 

EXAMPLES. 

m . - 7 *. . i, ,v .. f This pleases, and that captivates 

Celui-ci plait et celle- la captive < , \ T , • , -, r x 

^ F \ (relating to man and woman) 

2. The pronouns celui, celles, ceux, &c, followed 
by a pronoun relative, are expressed in English, by 
the pronouns personal, he, she, they, &c 



EXERCISE. 

The season of one year is, for man the same as that 
saison f. annee f. art. que 

of the preceding year, the same as that of all ages. The 

precedent 2 1 art. — 

pleasures 6f the wise resemble in nothing those of a dissi- 
art. contr. m. ne ressemblent en 3 am. dissi- 



148 OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

pated man. He that (suffers himself) to be ruled by his passions, 

pe 2 1 Celui qui se laisse * * dominer — 

must renounce happiness. This stuff shall fit (won- 

doit renoncer a art. contr. bonheur m. etoffe-ci f. siera 2 d 

derfully well) upon you. I desire you to stay there. That 

merveille 3*1 — que * demeuriez Id 

action is (to blame). This scene is calculated to interest 

— f. Id digne de blame — f . ci fait f. pour inter esser 

all men, but that cannot succeed, 
art. Id ne saurait reussir 

Observation. 

Ci and la joined to ce, form the two other demon- 
stratives ceci and cela, which are used by themselves ; 
but, when they are in opposition, ceci denotes the 
nearest object, and cela, the farthest. Ceci n'est 
que risible, mais cela me parait atroce, this is only 
laughable, but that seems to me atrocious. 



The body perishes, the soul is immortal ; yet all the cares 

perit f. cependant soinm. 

are for that while we neglect this. What means this? 

m. tandis que nfyUgeons f. Que veut dire 

That is true. It is not that. This is low and mean, but that is 

Ce 2 1 bas rampant 

grand and sublime.' 



§ VI. 

OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

Indefinite pronouns have a vague and indeter- 
minate signification, 4 
They are of four sorts. 



OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 



149 



FIRST CLASS. 



Those that are never joined to a Substantive, 



one 
a man 



somebody 
people 
they 
we 

you 



they 



on aime a se flatter 

{on rCest pas toujours 
maitre de soi 

on n'est pas toujours 
maitresse oValler oil* 
on veut 



ron 

i I 



on frappe a la porte 

on pense et *Ton dit 

trfa-haut 
on raconte diver sement 

cette histoire 
on acquiert V experience 

' ses depens 

fon trouve partout des 
I importuns 

on previent qu'on n 9 a 
point eu Vintention de, 
&c. 

{quand on vous dit que 
*l'on cGmpte sur vous 

si *l'on vous blame 

*on le hue, on a 
t 



{on 



{ 
{ 

rsi *l'c 
J si * 
( tori 



one is apt to flatter one's self 

{a man is not always mas- 
ter of his own temper 
fit is not always in the 
J power of a woman 
I to go where she 
v. wishes 

f somebody knocks at the 
\ door 

{people think and say 
openly 
I they relate that story dif- 
\ ferently 

{we acquire experience at 
our own expense 
ryou will find trouble- 
J some people every- 
(_ where 

CI beg to observe that 
•\ I had no intention to, 
I &c. 

J when 1" tell you that I 
(^ depend upon you 

fif they blame you and 
-J praise him, they are 
v. wrong 



Quelqu'un 

Quic onque 
Chacun 



rone 

J somebody 
(some one 

C whoever 
\ whosoever 

5 each 

( every one 



} 



quelquhin m'a dit, somebody told me 



^| quiconque connait les hommes, apprend 
V a s'en defter, whoever knows 

J mankind, learns to distrust them 
\chacun s'en plaint, every one com- 
5 plains of him 



For euphony. 



150 



OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 



Autrui 

Personne 
Rien 



other people 



others 



S nobody 
\ no one 

C nothing 

< not any thing 

C any thing 



'nenviez pas le bien d'autrui, do not 
covet the property of others 

nefaites pas a autrui, ce que vous ne 
voudriez pas quon vous fit, do not 
do to others, what you would not 
have done to you 

{lafierte ne convient a personne, pride 
becomes nobody 
rrun ne lui plait, nothing pleases him 
\y a-t-U rien qui puisse lui plaire? is 
) there anything that can please 
(. him? 



They always require the verb in the third person 
singular. 

Observation. 

U is put, by euphony, before on, when preceded 
by et, on, or st, unless immediately followed by le, 
la* les. 



EXAMPLES OF BOTH CASES. 



On pense et Ton dit tout haut 

People think and say aloud 

Le lieu ou Ton va 

The place where they are going 

Si Fon venait 

If they were coming 



> instead of / 



ret on dit 



si on venait 



But followed by le, la, les, we say : 



Et on la lira 
Ou on le verra 
Si on les aimait 



and people will read it 

or it will be seen 

if they were loving them 



1 S V{ 

> instead of \ l\ 

) U'< 



Von la 
'on le 
'on les 



N. B. — The same observation takes place, as 
above, when on is followed by the initial c fre- 
quently repeated, as 



On apprend plus aisement les choses 
que Von comprend bien, que celles 
qu e Von ne comprend qu'd demi 



We learn more easily what we 
understand thoroughly, than 
what we understand but little 



OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 151 



If you (behave yourself) (in that manner) what will people 
vous conduisez ainsi * on2 

say of you? It (is thought) that this news is true. They 
dira-t 1 On croit nouvelle f. 

write me word from Ispahan that thou hast left Persia, and 

ecrit * — as quitte art. Perse f. 

art now at Paris. One cannot read Telemachus, 

que tu es actuellement a ne pent lire Telemaque m. 

without becoming better; we there find (everywhere) a mild 

sans devenir meilleur on y trouve partout doux 

philosophy, noble and elevated sentiments ; we there find in 

= f. des — 2 eleve 3 — 1 y voif a* 

every line the effusions of a noble soul, and we admire 
chaque ligne epanchement m. beau f. des 

precepts calculated to effect the happiness of the world, 
precepte pi. propre /aire honheur m. monde m. 

N. B. — The foregoing indefinite pronouns will be better explained 
and exemplified in the Syntax of the same. 



SECOND CLASS. 

Those which are always joined to a Noun. 

These are quelque, some, any; chaque, each, 
every ; quelconque, whoever, whatever ; certain, 
certain, some ; un, a; an. 

EXAMPLES. 

Quelques historiens sont impar- some historians are impartial 

tiaux 

Chaque peuple a ses his et ses each people have both laws and 

coutumes manners of their own 

11 n'y a raison quelconque qui no reason whatever can oblige 

puisse Vy obliger him to it 

Certain auteur dont fai oublie le certain author whose name I have 

nom forgotten 

Certaines femmes qui paraissent some women modest in appear- 

modestes ance 

Un ami veritable, est un tresor a true friend is a precious trea- 

precieux sure 



152 OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 



Some enlightened people among the Egyptians preserve 
Certain eclaire 2 esprits 1 parmi Egyptians conscrvaient 

the idea of a First Being, whose attributes they represented 

idee etre art. — but m. 1 representaient 2 

under various symbols ; this (is proved) by the fol- 

lows different symbole m. pi. cest ce que prouve * cetie 
lowing inscription upon a temple : I am all that has been, is. and 

* — f. de — m. ce qui 

shall be ; no mortal ever removed the veil that covers 

ne2mortel2 1 lever ind.-4 voile m. qui couvre 2 
me. Every nation has (in its turn) shone on the theatre of the 

1 — f. a son tour 2 brille 1 

world. There is no reason whatever that can bring him 

qui puisse subj.-l determiner 2 
to it. Some figures appear monstrous and deformed, considered 
Vy 1 f. pi. paraissent monstrueux difforme — dere 

separately, or too near ; but, if they are put in their proper light 
separement de trop pres on les met * jour m. 

and place, the true point of view restores their 

a leur — — m. de leur rend * art. 

beauty and grace. 
= art. — 



THIRD CLASS. 

Those which are sometimes joined to Nouns and 
sometimes not. 

These are nul 9 no, none ; pas tin, no, not one ; 
ancun, no, none ; autre, other ; meme, same ; tel, 
such, like ; plusieurs, several, many ; tout, all, 
every, everything. 

When joined to a substantive, the above inde- 
finite pronouns follow the rule of adjectives ; and 



OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 153 

when standing alone, they are accompanied by the 
preposition de 

EXAMPLES. 

Adjective. 
Nulle raison ne peut le convaincre No reason can convince him 

Pronoun. 
Nul oVeux ne Pa rencontre None of them have met him 

Adjective. 
Je n'ai aucun moyen de reussir I have not any means of sue- 

ceeding 

Pronoun. 
Aucune d'elles n'etait presente None of them were present 

* 

EXERCISE. 

None likes to see himself as he is. There is no 
Personne n'aime a voir 2 se 1 tel que H n'y a aucun. 

expression, no truth of design and colouring, no stroke of 

— f. verite de dessin m. pr. coloris m. trait m. 

genius in that great work. He is so ignorant, and, at the same 

m. ce ouvrage — en * 

time, so obstinate, that he will never be convinced by any rea- 
obstine ne se rendra jamais a rat- 

soning. None of his works will (be handed down) to 

sonnement m, de ouvrage passera art. 

posterity, He is as learned as any one. Not one of these 

= aussi savant qui que ce soit de 

engravings announces a great skill. « 

gravure f. annonce talent 



FOURTH CLASS. 

Those which are followed by Que. 

As qui que, whoever, whosoever; qnoi que, what- 
ever ; quel que, whoever, whatever ; tel que, such as ; 

h ^ 



154 



OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 



quel que, que, whatever, however ; tout que, how- 
ever. 



Qui que 



Quoi que 



Quel que 



tu sois, je ne te crains pas, whoever thou mayst be I do 

not fear thee 
ce soit,je veux le voir, whoever it may be, I will see him 
| ce soit qui vienne, diies que je n'y suis pas, whosoever comes, 

say I am not at home 

r vousfassiez, il ne vous ecoutera pas, whatever you may do, 

he will not listen to you 
ce soit quHl imagine, il rCen viendra pas a bout, whatever he 

may imagine, he will not succeed 
ce soit qui lux arrive, il est toujour s le meme, whatever hap- 
^ pens to him he is always the same 

'soit cet homme, or cet homme quelqu'il soit, ne Saurait me 

plaire, whoever that man may be, he could not please 

me 
raison que vous donniez, vous aurez toujour s tort, whatever 

reason you may give, you will always be in the wrong 
puissant que vous soyez, vous ne serez jamais content, 

however powerful you may be, you will never be 

contented 



fvous desirez, such as you like 

\nous le voulons, such as we wish it to be 



Tel que 

Tout savant qu'il est, however learned he may be 



EXERCISE. 

Passenger, whoever thou art, contemplate with a religious respect 

Passant i tu sois — pie = 2 — m. 

this monument erected by gratitude ; it is the tomb of a 

— m. eleve art. reconnaissance f. ce tombeaum. 

lust and beneficent man. How can he hope to be loved, 
— 2 bienfaisant 3 1 Comment peut-il esperer de aime 

who has regard for no one else ? Whatever he may do 
lui n'a Regards pour personne Quoi que * fasse 1 

or say, he will find it very difficult to destroy prejudices 
qu'Udise aura * Men de la peine detruire des — jugem.pl. 

so deeply rooted. A mind vain, presumptuous, and incon- 

prqfondement enracine = sans 

sistent, will never succeed in anything whatever, 
consistance ne reussira jamais en quoi que ce soit 



EXERCISE CN THE PRONOUNS. 155 



A GENERAL EXERCISE ON THE PRONOUNS. 

THE EVENING WALK. 

On a fine summer evening, my brother, my sister, and 
Dans de ete soiree f.-l 

myself (were walking) (by the side) of a wood, not 

moi nous nous promenions ind.-2 le long bois m. qui n'est 

far distant from the castle which we inhabit. We (were 
pas bien eloigne contr. chateau obj. habitons 

contemplating) with rapture, the majestic scenery which 
contemplions transport 2 scene f. 1 obj, art. 

nature exhibits at the approach of night, when we perceived 

— deploie approche f. art. nuit f. apercumes 
at the foot of an ancient oak, a boy of the most interesting 
a pr. art. pied m. vieux chene m. enfant m. — ressant 2 

figure. His beauty, his air of ingenuity and candour, his 

art. — f . 1 = f . — m. pr. 

graces struck us, and we approached him. What ' 

— frappdrent 2 nous 1 nous nous approchdmes de 

alone here, my boy? said we. Whence art thou? Whence 

id lui dimes d'oil 

comest thou ? What art thou doing here alone ? I am not alone, 
viens * 2 fais 1 13 2 

answered he smiling ; I am not alone ; but I was fatigued, and 
repondiU d'un air riant ind.-2 fatigue 

I have sat myself under the shade of this tree, while my 

je me suis assis a ombre arbre m. tandis que 

mother is busy gathering simples to give some alie- 
f. occupe a cueillir des — pour apporter quelque sou- 

viation to the pains which her old father suffers. Ah ! 
lagement contr. douleur f. pi. obj. 2 endure 1 

(how many) troubles my good mamma has! (How many) 
que de peine f. pi. 2 eprouve 1 que 

troubles ! Did you know them, there is not one of you 
d' inquietudes Si * 1 connaissiez 3 2 U n't/ a aucun de 

that would not be touched with pity,, and who could refuse 
subj = * ne fut — die de pitie lui refusdt subj . 2 

the tribute of your tears. We said to him, lovely child, thy 
un tribut * larme 1 dimes & hi 2 aimabie ton 



156 EXERCISE ON THE PRONOUNS. 

ingenuity, candour. innocence, (every thing) interests 

= pron. pron. tout interesse 2 

us in thy misfortunes and those of thy mother. Relate 
1 a malheur m. pi. pr. ceux de Raconte sing. 

them to us, whatever they be; fear not to affli<* us. 
* nous quels quils soient ne crains pas de affiiger 2 1 
(Woe be) to whoever cannot (be affected) by the misfortunes of 
malheur quiconque ne sait s'attendrir sur mal pi. des 

others. He immediately related the history of his mother, with an 
2 aussitot 1 raconta = 

expression, a naivete, a grace, altogether affecting. Our hearts 
— f. f. — f. tout-d-fait touchant 

felt the liveliest emotions; tears (trickled down oui 

eprouverent vif — f. pi. nos coulerent 

cheeks), and we gave him what little money we had 

donndmes 2 lui 1 U peu de argent que avions 

about us. (In the mean time), the mother returned. (As soon as) 
sur cependant revint des que 

he saw her, he exclaimed, run, mamma, run ; see 

apergut 2 la I s'ecria ind.-3 accours sing. — man vois sin. 

what these good little folks have given me; I have related (to 
ce que gens f. pi. ont 2 donne I je ai raconte 

them) thy misfortunes; they have been affected (at them), and 
leur 2 malheurs m. 1 ont 3 ete touche pi. en 

their sensibility (has not been satisfied) with shedding tears. 

= f . we 1 pas 3 s'est 2 bornee a pr. art. 

See, mamma ! ah ! see what they have given me. The mother 
regarde ce que 

was (moved to the heart) ; she thanked us, and 

fut ind.-3 attendrie renter eta 2 ind.-3 1 nous 

said, generous, sensible souls, the good action which you (have 
dit 3 — reux2et — 3 1 f . — f. obj. venez 

just been doing) will not be lost. He who sees (everything), 
ind.-l defaire ne sera pas perdu f. Celui voit tout 

and judges of every thing, will not let it go unre- 

juge de * ne la laissera pas * sans recorn- 

warded. 
pense 

N. B. — The above indefinite pronouns-adjectives will be bettei 
explained and exemplified in the Syntax of the same. 



OF THE VERB. 157 



CHAPTER V 

OF THE VERB. 

Its Definition. 

The Verb is that part of speech by which we 
express the affirmation of an existing state, of a 
good or bad quality, or of an action either performed 
or received. 

EXAMPLES 

Of existing state je mis, I am 

Of good and bad\ la vertu est aimable, virtue is amiable 

qualities ) le vice est honteux, vice is shameful 

Of an action done 1 j'aime Dieu, I love God 

or received J je suis aime de Dieu, I am loved by God. 

Subject, Attribute, Object, or Regimeti of a Verb. 

1. The Subject or nominative of a verb, is that 
which does or performs the action expressed by the 
verb. 

2. The Attribute is nothing but the expression of 
the good or bad quality belonging to the subject, 
and affirmed by the verb etre, to be. 

3. The Object or Regimen of a verb, is quite the 
opposite of the subject ; its function is merely to 
receive the action performed by the subject and 
expressed by the verb. 



158 OF THE VERB. 



Division. 

There are but three sorts of verbs, viz., substan- 
tive, transitive, and intransitive, 

1. The verb etre, to be, which is also called 
auxiliary, when used in the compound tenses of 
another verb, is the only one which bears the name 
of substantive, because from its nature it expresses 
the state or manner of existing relatively to any 
substantive. 

2. The transitive or active verbs, are those which 
express an action done by their subjects, and received 
by their objects or regimens, as 

les enfants aiment hs fruits children are fond of fruits 
les hommes admirent la vertu men admire virtue 

in the two above examples the subjects enfants and 
hommes both perform the actions of loving and 
admiring expressed by the verbs aiment and admi- 
rent, whilst the objects or regimens fruits and vertu 
are both receivers of this same action. 

3. The intransitive or neuter, are those which 
express an action performed by a subject, but with- 
out any direct object to receive it, as dormir, to sleep, 
languir, to pine. In French, a transitive or active 
verb, is known when you may put the word quel- 
quCun or quelque chose, somebody or something after 
it; and for the same reason, an intransitive or 
neuter verb, is known when you cannot use either 
of the two above words, somebody or something 
after it; for instance, aimer, to love, is an active 
verb, because you may say, aimer quelquun ou 
quelque chose, to love somebody or something; but 
as you cannot properly say, dormir quelquhin, 



OF THE VERB 159 

dormir quelque chose, to sleep somebody, to sleep 
something, you must infer that dormir, to sleep, is 
a neuter verb. 



Observation. 

In French, the personal pronounsje, tu, il, nous, 
vous, &c, are the essential words through which we 
may recognise whether any part of speech is a verb 
or not. 

Hoiv to distinguish the Subject from the Regimen. 

The nominative or subject of any verb, in French, 
is known by putting the following question, qui 
est-ce qui ? who ? and the object or regimen of an 
active verb, by qu est-ce que f what ? for instance, I 
want to know through the above method, both the 
subject and object of the following proposition ; 
nous aimons la verite, we love truth ; qui est-ce qui 
aime ? w T ho is loving ? nous, we, is the answer ; 
therefore I infer that nous is the subject or nomi- 
native of the active verb aimer, to love. Now, to 
know the regimen of the same proposition, I ask, 
qu est-ce que nous aimons ? what do we love ? as la 
verite, truth, will be the answer, I conclude that the 
very word verite must be the regimen of the same 
active verb, aimer, to love. 

The regimen of an active verb is generally placed 
after the verb (when it is not a pronoun), as j 'aime 
mon pere, I love my father ; ma soeur sait sa leqon, 
my sister knows her lesson ; but the regimen is 
placed before the verb when it is a pronoun, as je 
t'aime, I love thee, instead of: j'ai?ne toi; il nous 
aime, he loves us, instead of il aime nous. 

Grammarians admit of another regimen, which 



160 OF THE VERB. 

they call indirect, but as it is always preceded by 
a preposition, it is rather the regimen of the pre- 
position than that of the verb. — {See the syntax of 
the Verbs, p. 364.) 



Subdivisio?i of Verbs. 

Besides the substantive, transitive, and intran- 
sitive verbs, there are some others, known under 
the name of passive, pronominal, and impersonal. 

1. A passive verb, is that which presents the 
subject as receiving the effect of an action expressed 
by an active verb, and the object as doing it. 

The difference between a passive and an active 
verb is, that in the former, the subject which 
performs the act, receives or suffers it in the latter, 
hence, by the transposition both of the subject and 
object, an active verb becomes a passive one, and 
vice versa ; for instance, if I say le feu brule le bois, 
fire burns the wood, by the transposition of the 
subject le feu > and the object le bois, I shall have 
the following passive proposition without altering 
the active sense in the former, le bois est brule par 
lefeu, the wood is burnt by the fire. 

2. The pronominal verbs, are those which are 
conjugated through all their tenses with a double 
pronoun belonging to the same person, as je me 
jiatte, I flatter myself; elle se tue, she kills herself. 

N. B. — It is to be observed, in the foregoing 
examples, that though the pronouns je me, elle se, 
belong to the same individual, je, elle, are subjects 
and me, se, the objects of the verbs flatter and tuer. 

3. Pronominal verbs are divided into three 
classes: 1. In passively pronominal; 2. In re- 
flected ; 3. In reciprocal. 



OF THE VERB. 161 

The pronominal passive verbs, are those which 
have inanimate things for their subjects, as 

le poison se glisse dans les veines poison insinuates itself through 

the veins 
^occasion se presente an opportunity offers itself 

cette maison se hue trop cher that house lets too dear 

In fact, it is easy to understand that the sense in 
the above examples is merely passive, for jjoison by 
itself, has no power to act through the veins, no 
more than the opportunity to offer itself, or the 
house to do the action of letting itself ; therefore 
the true meaning of these propositions is as follows : 

Poison is insinuated, &c. 

The opportunity is presented, &c. 

This house is to be let, &c. 

Difference between Reflected and Reciprocal Verbs. 

A reflected verb, is that whose subject is an 
animate thing in the singular number, as ma soeur 
s y est noyee, my sister has drowned herself. 

A reciprocal verb, is that which expresses the 
action of several subjects together, acting recipro- 
cally one upon another, as ces homines se battaient, 
et se disaient des injures, those men were fighting 
together and insulting one another. 

4. The impersonal verb, is that which is never used 
but in the third person singular. Pleuvoir, to rain, 
is an impersonal verb, because it has only the third 
person singular through all its tenses : ilpleut, it 
rains ; il pleuvait, it was raining or it did rain, &c. 

To know whether a verb is impersonal or not, it 
requires only to try to conjugate it with the per- 
sonal pronouns je, tu 9 il, &c, for instance, no one 



162 OF THE VERB. 

can, with propriety, conjugate pleuvoir as follows : 
I rain, thou rainst, &c. 

N. B. — Any active verb may be conjugated pro- 
no minally. 

The greatest part of the French verbs are regular, 
but nevertheless, there are some irregular and others 
defective. 

Regular verbs, are those which, through all their 
tenses, have terminations conformable to those of 
the verb which serves them as a model or paradigm. 

Irregular verbs are those to which the termina- 
tion of the verb serving as a model, do not conform 
through all their tenses. 

Defective verbs, are those which are wanting in 
certain tenses or persons, not allowed by usage. 

The terminations of the verb vary according to 
the different persons, numbers, tenses, and moods. 

There are in verbs, two numbers, the singular and 
plural, and in each number, three persons. 

1. The first person, that who speaks, is designated 
by ye, I, in the singular, and by nous, we, in the 
plural ; as je pense, I think ; nous pensons, we 
think. 

2. The second, which is the person spoken to, is 
expressed by tu, thou, in the singular, and by vous, 
you, in the plural ; as tu paries, thou speakest ; 
vous parlez, you speak. 

3. The third, being the person spoken of, is 
marked by il, he, or elle, she, in the singular ; and 
by Us or elles, they, in the plural ; as il or elle 
pense, he or she thinks ; Us or elles pensent, they 
think. 

Observe that all substantives are in the third 
person, when not addressed or spoken to. 



OF THE VERB 163 



MOODS. 



There are five 7noods, or modes of conjugating 
verbs. 

1. The indicative, which simply indicates and 
asserts an action in a direct manner, as faime, I 
love. 

2. The conditional affirms a thing, but with a 
condition, as j aimerais si, tyc, I should love if, &c. 

3. The imperative, that is used for commanding, 
exhorting, requesting, or reproving; as aime, love 
thou ; aimons, let us love. 

4. The subjunctive, which without expressing the 
affirmative, supposes it, but with a dependance upon 
something before mentioned; as vous voulez quit 
aime, you wish that he may love ; que nous aimions, 
that we may love. 

Observe that this mood is always governed by an 
antecedent, implying either necessity, desire, or 
fear, &c. 

5. The infinitive mood affirms, in an indefinite 
manner, without either number or person ; as aimer, 
to love ; avoir aime, to have loved. 

TENSES. 

There are three tenses, namely the present, which 
declares a thing now existing or doing, as je lis, 
I read : the past or preterit, denoting that the thing 
has been done, as je his, I read : the future, de- 
noting that the thing will be done, as je lirai, I 
shall read. These three above tenses, are subdivided 
into simple and compound tenses, each of them 
known under a particular denomination, as will be 
seen afterwards. 



164 OF THE VERB. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



The simple tenses are those which are conjugated 
without the auxiliaries etre, to be, or avoir, to have, 
as je chante, I sing ; je dormais, I was sleeping ; 
fapercevrai, I shall or will perceive, &c. 



COMPOUND TENSES. 

The compound tenses are those which cannot be 
conjugated without the assistance of one of the 
auxiliaries avoir or etre, asfai aime, I have loved ; 
je sais admire* I am admired. 

The simple tenses are again subdivided into 
primitive and derived tenses. 

PRIMITIVE TENSES. 

The primitive tenses, through which are formed 
all the other derived ones in the four conjugations, 
are called primitive, owing to their having no deri- 
vation whatever. 



DERIVED TENSES. 

The derived tenses, are those which are formed 
by the primitive ones. 

There are in French five primitive tenses, namely : 

The present of the infinitive mood ; 

The present participle ; 

The participle past ; 

The present of the indicative mood ; 

And the preterit definite. 

N. B. — The knowledge of the derivation of tenses 
is necessary, in order to conjugate well the French 



OF THE VERB. 



165 



verbs, therefore it will be advisable for the master 
to acquaint the learner with the practice of the 
above theory on the formation of French verbs. 



Formation of the Future and Conditional. 

L The future simple or absolute is formed from 
the present infinitive by adding ai in the three first 
conjugations, and by changing e into ai in the 
fourth ; as 





future 




future 


1st conj. aimer faimer-ai 
2nd ... finir je finir -ai 


3rd conj. pre voir je prevoir-ai 
4th . . . rendre je rendr-ai 




EXCEPTIONS. 






First Conjugation. 




Envoyer 

Aller 

Essayer 


future 
fenverrai 
jHrai 
fessaierai 


Employer 
Appuyer 


future 

j'emploierai 
j f appuierai 




Second C 


onjugation. 




Tenir 
Venir 
Courir 


je tiendrai 
je viendrai 
je courrai 


Cueillir 
Mourir 
Acquerir 


je cueillerai 
je mourrai 
j'acquerrai 




Third Co 


njugation. 




Recevoir 

Avoir 

Echoir 

Pouvoir 

Savoir 


je recevrai 
j'aurai 
fecherrai 
je pourrai 
je saurai 


Vouloir 

Mouvoir 

Devoir 

Valoir 

Falloir 


je voudrai 
je mouvrai 
je devrai 
je vaudrai 
ilfaudra 


S'asseoir 
Voir 


Cjem'asseeyrai or 
\ je m'assierai 
je verrai 


Pleuvoir 


(il pleuvra (im- 
\ personal 




Fourth C 


mjugation. 




Faire 


jeferai 


&tre 


je serai 



2 The conditional present 5 like the future, is also 



166 



OF THE VERB. 



formed from the present of the infinitive mood, but, 
in order to have no exceptions, we will form it from 
the future itself, by changing the last syllable rat 
into rais, as 



fut. 


eond. 


fut. 


cond. 


j'aime-rai 
je fini-rai 


f aime-rais 
jejini-rais 


je recev-rai 
je rend-rai 


je recev-rais 
je rend-rais 



Formation of the Imperative. 

The second person singular of the imperative is 
similar to the first person singular of the present 
indicative, by suppressing the pronoun je, except 
however alter, to go; savoir, to know ; and the two 
auxiliaries avoir and etre. 



Observation. 

In the verbs in er 9 and in those which end in a 
mute e in the first person singular of the present 
indicative, as fouvre, I open ; je souffre, I suffer. 
The second person singular in the imperative takes 
an s after the mute e, when followed by the pro- 
nouns en or y. 

EXAMPLES. 

The following sentences 

porte un livre carry a book 

ouvre la porte a ton frere open thou the door to thy brother 

are correct, but were the above verbs followed by 
en or y, we should say : 



portes-en a ton frere 
apportes-y des livres 



carry thou some to thy brother 
bring thou some books thither 



OF THE VERB. J 67 

je veux entrer dans cette chambre, I want to go into that room, 

ouvres-en la porte open thou the door of it 

tu as fait unefaute, souffres-en la thou hast committed a fault, thou 

peine must suffer for it 

However, we say without the final 5 

donne en cette occasion des give thou on this occasion some 
preuves de ton zele proofs of thy zeal 

because in this case, en is a preposition. 

Remarks. 

1. The third person singular in the imperative, 
and the third person singular in the subjunctive 
present, are always alike. 

2. The first and second persons plural in the 
present of the subjunctive, are similar to the first 
and second persons plural in the imperfect indi- 
cative. 

Formation of the Imperfect of the Subjunctive. 

The imperfect of the subjunctive mood, is formed 
from the preterit definite of the indicative, by 
changing ai into asse for the first conjugation, as 

pret. faim-ai imp. subj. quefaim-asse 

and by adding only se to the preterit for the three 
other conjugations, as 



pret. 


imp. subj. 


pret. 


imp. subj. 


je finis 


que je finis-se 


je rendis 


que je rendis- s 


je regus 


que je regus-se 







There is no exception. 



168 OF THE VERB, 



OF CONJUGATIONS. 

To conjugate a verb, is to recite it with all its 
different inflections. 

The French have four conjugations, which are 
easily distinguished by the termination of the 
present of the infinitive. 

The first ends in er as parler, aimer, chanter, &c. 

second ... ir ... finir, sentir, ouvrir, tenir, &c. 

third ... oir ... recevoir, apercevoir, devoir, &c. 

fourth ... re ... rendre, prendre, plane, nuire, &c. 

As the French have not a sufficient number of 
inflections in their verbs to represent the great 
variety of their tenses, they supply this deficiency 
with the two auxiliary verbs, avoir, to have, and 
etre, to be. 

These two last verbs, avoir and etre, are of a 
very frequent use, especially in French conversation. 
It will be observed that the verb etre, loses its ex- 
clusive quality of a substantive verb when employed 
in the compound tenses of another verb. As to the 
verb to have, which is also an auxiliary when in 
composition with the past participle of another verb, 
it is a true active verb from its nature ; as fax un 
livre, I have a book ; by asking the questions who ? 
and what? (see p. 159, ) one could easily find out 
both the subject and object of the foregoing sentence. 



OF THE VERB. 



J 69 



CONJUGATION 

OF THE 

VERB AVOIR, TO HAVE. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



PRESENT. 

to have 



INFINITIVE. 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



past, or compound of the present 
avoir eu to have had 



PRESENT. 

ayant having 

PAST. 

eu m. eue f. had 



PARTICIPLES. 



ayant eu 



having had 



FUTURE. 

devant avoir being about to have 

INDICATIVE. 



I PRETERIT INDEFINITE, Or Com- 

i 



jai 
tu as 

U or elle a 
nous avons 
vous avez 
its or elks out 



I have 
thou hast 
he or she has 
we have 
you have 
they have 



pound of the Present. 

I have had 
thou hast had 
he has had 
we have had 
you have had 
they have had 



j ai eu 
tu as eu 
il a eu 

nous avons eu 
vous avez eu 
Us ont eu 



Observation. 

In the following exercises, the learner is to put 
des between the auxiliary and the substantive, if that 
substantive be in the plural ; du, if it be in the 
masculine singular, and beginning with a consonant . 



170 OF THE VERB. 

SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 





IMPERFECT. 




pluperfect, or Compound of the 






imperfect. 


j'avais 


I had, or did ^ 


j'avais eu I had had 


tu avals 


thou hadst or 




tu avais eu thou hadst had 




didst 


Cr 1 




il avait 


he had, or did 


< 


il avait eu he had had 


nous avions 


we had, or did 


a 


nous avions eu we had had 


vous aviez 


you had, or did 




vous aviez eu you had had 


its avaient 


they had, or did/ 




Us avaient eu they had had 



de la, if it be in the feminine singular, and begin- 
ning with a consonant ; and de l\ if it be in the 
singular for both genders, and beginning with a 
vowel or h mute. The plural of the substantives 
in these exercises is formed by the simple addition 
of an s. 



PRESENT. 



I have books. 

livre m. pi. 
She has sweetness. 
douceur f. 

have virtues. They have modesty. 
vertu f. pi. f. modestie f. 



Thou hast friends. He has honesty. 

ami m. pi. honnetete t'Jm. 

We have credit. You have riches. They 
— m. richesse f. pL m. 



preterit indefinite, or Compound of the Present. 

1 have had pleasure. Thou hast had gold. He has had 
plaisir m. or m. 

patience. She has had beauty. We have had honours. You 

— f. beaute f. honneur m. pi. 

have had friendship. They have had sentiments. They have had 

amitie f. m. — m. pi. f. 

sensibility. 
sensibilite f. 

imperfect. 

I had ambition. Thou hadst wealth. He had sincerity. She 
— f. bien m. sincerite f. 



OF THE VEKB. - 171 

had graces. We liad oranges. You had pears. They had 
grace f. pi. orange f. pi. poire f. pi. 

apples. They had lemons. 
pomme f. pi. f. citron m. pi. 

Observation. 

In the following exercises, we have added an 
adjective to the substantive, upon which the learner 
is to make no change in the observation on the 
preceding exercise, if the adjective be placed after 
the substantive ; but, if it be placed before, then he 
is only to make use of de, when the adjective begins 
with a consonant, and of d\ when it begins with a 
vowel or h mute. He ought also to notice, that the 
adjective must agree in gender and number with the 
substantive ; that the feminine of adjectives is 
formed by the addition of e mute, when it has not 
this termination, and sometimes by doubling the last 
consonant and adding e ; and that the plural is 
formed by the addition of s in the singular. We 
shall subjoin the figures 1 and 2, to mark the place 
of the adjective and the substantive, and the letter 
d after the adjective, when the last consonant is to 
be doubled. 



pluperfect, or Compound of the Imperfect. 

I had had good paper. Thou hadst had very black ink. He 
bon* papier m. fort noir 2 encre f. 1 

had had excellent fruit. She had had uncommon graces. We 

— m. pi. rare 2 — f. pi. 1 

had had good pens. You had had honest proceedings. They 

plume f. pi. honnete 2 procede m. pi. 1 

had had immense treasures. They had had charming flowers. 
— tresor m. pi. f. charmant fieur f. pi. 

* Whenever the French adjective is of one or two syllables, as in English, it 
is generally put before the substantive, and de is used instead of des, for both 
numbers. 



172 OF THE VERB. 

SIMPLE TENSE?. I COMPOUND TENSES. 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 


preterit anterior, or compound 






of the preterit. 


feus 


I had 


feus eu I had had 


tu eus 


thou hadst 


tu eus eu thou hadst had 


il eut 


he had 


il eut eu he had had 


nous eumes 


we had 


nous eumes eu we had had 


vous eutes 


you had 


vous eutes eu you had had 


Us eurent 


they had 


ils eurent eu they had had 



preterit definite. 

I had plums. Thou hadst cherries. He had strawberries. 
prune f. pi. cerise f. pi. fraise f. pi. 

(She had pine-apples. We had almonds. You had goose- 
ananas m. pi. amande f. pi. gro- 

berries. They had raspberries. They had grapes. 
seille f. pi. m. framboise f. pi. f. raisin m. pi. 



preterit anterior, or Compound of the Preterit. 

I had had apricots. Thou hadst had nectarines. He had had 
abricot m, pi. brugnon m. pi. 

walnuts. She had had hazel-nuts. We had had chesnuts. 
noix f. pi. noisette f. pi. chdtaigne f. pi. 

You had had figs. They had had medlars. They had had 
figue f. pi. m. nefle f. pi. f. 

filberts. 
aveline f. pi. 

N. B. — The learner must bear in mind that sub- 
stantives ending in x, 5, or z, in the singular 
number, take no additional letter in the plural. 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

I shall have very ripe grapes. Thou wilt have exquisite 
bien mur 2 1 exquis 2 

melons. He will have succulent peaches. We shall have 
melon m. pi. 1 — peche f. pi. 1 



SIMPLE TENSES. 




COMPOU 
FUTURE ANTE 


SD TENSES. 


FUTURE 


ABSOLUTE. 


rior, or compound 






of the future. 


f aural 


T shall, or will 




faurai eu 


I shall or will , 




tu auras 


thou shalt, or 
wilt 




tu auras eu 


thou wilt 


BO 
< 


il aura 


he will 


§ 


il aura eu 


he will 


>Z 


nous aurons 


we shall 


ft 


nous aurons eu 


we shall 


M 


vous aurez 


you will 




vous aurez eu 


you will 


P^ 


ils auront 


they will t 




ils auront eu 


they will ■* 






CONDI! 


TONAL. 




f aurais 


I should, could\ 
or would 




faurais eu 


I should 


tu aurais 


thou shouldst 


— 


tu aurais eu 


thou shouldst f § 


il aurait 


he should 


< 


il aurait eu 


he should r^ 


nous aurions 


we should 


fl> 


nous aurions eh 


we should 1 §f 


vous auriez 


you should 




vous auriez eu 


you should' J ^ 


ils auraient 

• 


they should j 




ils auraient eu 


they should 



large buildings. You will have fine habits. They will 
grand bdtiment m. pi. superbe habit m. pi. 

have ready money. 
comptant 2 argent m. 1 

future anterior, or Compound of the Future. 

I shall have had wise counsels. Thou wilt have had ridiculous 
sage conseil m. pi. ridicule* 2 

ideas. She will have had poignant griefs We shall 

idee f. pi. 1 cuisant 2 chagrin m. pi. 1 

have had true and real pleasures. You will have had unavailing 
vrai 2 et reel 3 m. pi. 1 inutile 2 

cares. They will have had horrid pains. 

soin m. pi. 1 horrible 2 peine f. pi. 1 

N. B. — We say also, in the conditional past, 
JTeusse eu, tu eusses eu, il eut eu, nous eussions eu, 
vous eussiezeu, ils eussent eu, I should have had, &c. 



* Adjectives ending in a mute e in the singular masculine, are the same 
for the feminine gender hut tbev take the s in the plural like other adjectives. 



174 OF THE VERB. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Aie have (thou) 

qu'il ait let him have 

ayons let us have 

atjez have (ye) 

qiCils aient or \ 1^.^-1. i 

* ,7 7 . . Y let them have 
qu elles aient ) 



Observation. 

The English auxiliaries should, ivould, and could, 
of the conditional, are not to be considered as 
essentially and necessarily appertaining to those 
tenses, so that, I should have, ought always to be 
translated by jaurais, and vice versa. It will be 
seen hereafter that it is not so ; but, at present, we 
shall make use of those auxiliaries, merely to indicate 
what tense the exercise is on. 

EXAMPLES. 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

I should have studious pupils. Thou shouldst have 

applique '2 eleve m. pi. 1 
precious engravings. He would have beautiful pictures. We 
vrecieux-se gravure f. pi. beau tableau m. pi. 

should have glory. You would have pretty playthings. They 

gloire f. joli joujou m. pi. 

should have delightful days. 

delicieux 2 jour m. pi. 1 

past, or Corn-pound of the Conditional, 

I should have had formidable rivals. Thou wouldst 

redoutable 2 rival-aux m. pi. 1 
have had powerful enemies. He would have had just supe- 
puissant 2 ennemi m. pi. 1 juste 2 

riors. We should have had dignities. You would have 

superieur m. pi. dignitei. pi. 

had fortune. They would have had experience. 
f. f. 



OF THE VERB 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 



175 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



que j aie 

que tu aies 

quHl ait 
que nous ayons 
que vous.ayez 
quHls aient 



that I have, or\ 

may 
that thou 

mayst 
that he may 
that we may 
that you may 
that they mayj 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



preterit, or Compound of the 
Present* 

quefaieeu that I may \ 

que tu aies eu that thou 

mayst 
qiCil ait eu that he may 

que nous ayons ewthat we may 
que vous ayez eu that you may 
quHls aient that they may, 



Observations. 

The imperative has no first person singular. 

All second persons singular of the French verbs 
end with an s, except, sometimes, in the impe- 
rative. 

In the following exercises, the verb will be fol- 
lowed by several substantives, and in this case, each 
of these substantives is to be preceded by the 
proper article and preposition agreeing with it. 
The learner must also know that a or an, which 
will sometimes be found before the substantive, is to 
be rendered by un, if the substantive be masculine, 
and by ime, if it be feminine, but without the elision 
of the mute e. 

EXERCISE. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Have complaisance, attention, and politeness. Let him have 
Sing. — f. egard m. pi. politesse f. 

success. Let us have courage and firmness. Have ye 

du success m. — m. art. fermete f. 

magnanimity. Let them have manners and conduct. 

art. magnanimite f. f. art. moeurs f. pi art. conduite. 



176 



OF THE VERB. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



1 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



IMPERFECT. 

quefeiisse that I had, or. 

que tu eusses that thou 1 

quHl eut that he 

que nous eussions that we 

que vous eussiez that you 

quHls eussent that they > 



pluperfect, or Compound of 
the Imperfect. 

quefeusseeu that I 
que tu eusses eu that thou 
qu'il eut eu that he 

que nous eussions that we 

eu 
que vous eussiez that you 

eu 
quHls eussent eu that they 



The subjunctive is always preceded by que. 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

That I may have a tender friend. That thou mayst have a good 
tendre ami m. 

watch. That he may have elevated sentiments. That we may 
montre f. eleve 2 — m. 1 

have fine weather. That you may have delightful landscapes. 

un temps m. delicieux art. pay sage m. pi. 

That they may have a good master and (be grateful.) 

maitre m, art. reconnaissance f. 

preterit, or Compound of the Present 

'That I may have had wine, beer, and cider. That thou mayst 
vin m. Mere f. cidre m. 

have had a good horse, and a fine dog. That he may have had 

cheval m. chien m. 

enlightened judges. That we may have had snow, rain and 

eclair e 2 juge m. pi. 1 neige f. pluie f. 

wind. That you may have had a great dining-room, a beautiful 
vent m. saUe-a-manger f. superbe 

drawing-room, a pretty dressing-room, and a charming 
salon de compagnie m. joli cabinet de toilette m. 

bed-room. They they may have had vast possessions, 

chambre a coucher f. vaste — f. pi. 

fine meadows, and delightful groves. 
belle prairie f. pi. 2 bois m. pi. I 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 177 

IMPERFECT. 

That I might have a sword, a musket, and pistols. That 

epee f. fusil m. art. pistolet m. pi. 
thou mightst have a knife, a spoon, and a fork. That he 

couleau m. cuiller f. fourchette f. 

might have a penknife, pencils, and good models (to 

canif m. pinceau m. pi. art. modilem. pi. 

follow). That we might have a coach a good house, and 

carrosse m. maison f. art. 

furniture, simple but elegant. That you might have health and 
meuble m. pi. mais sante f. 

great respect. That they might have fruitful lands. 
un consideration f. fertile 2 terre f.-pl. 1 

pluperfect, or Compound of the Imperfect. 

That I might have had friendship. That thou mightst have had 

amitie f. 
gloves, boots, and horses. That he might have had zealous 
gant m. pi. botte f. pi. chevaux zele 2 

and faithful servants. That we might have had line clothes, 

fidele 3 domestique 1 habit m. 

precious jewels, and magnificent furniture. That you might have 
bijou m. pi. magnifiqne 2 meubles 1 

had warm friends. That they might have had greatness of 

chaud 2 1 art. grandeur f. 

soul and pity. 
d'dme pitief. 



SENTENCES ON THE SAME VERB, WITH A NEGATIVE 

Observation. 

In these sentences, the learner is only to put de 
or cT before the substantive, according as it begins 
with a consonant or a vowel ; likewise, he is to put 
ne between the personal pronoun and the verb, and 
pas or point after the verb, in the simple tenses, and 
between the verb and the participle, in the com- 
pound tenses \ as 

i2 



178 OF AUXILIARY VERES. 

Je rial pas de livres I have no books 

Tu rtavais pas de bien Thou hadst no wealth 

Elle rCeut pas oVhonnetete She has no honesty 

Nous rCavons pas eu oVamitie We have had no friendship 

Vous n'aviez pas eu de puissans You had not had powerful friends 

amis 

lis riauront pas oVennemis redouta- They will not have formidable 

ables enemies 

exercise. 
INDICATIVE. 

Present. 
I have no precious medals. We have no useless things. 

— cieux viedaille f. pi. inutile 2 chose f. pi. 1 

preterit indefinite, or Compound of the Present. 

I have had no constancy. We have had no generosity- 
Constance f. generosite i. 

IMPERFECT. 

Thou hadst not a beautiful park. You had no good cucumbers. 
pare m. concomhre m. pi. 

pluperfect, or Compound of the Imperfect. 

He had had no fine houses. They had had no money, 
f. pi. m. 

preterit definite. 
He had not a skilful gardener. They had no carpets. 

habile jardinier m. tapis m. pi. 

preterit anterior or Compound of the Preterit. 

Thou hadst had no complaisance. You had had no great talents. 
— f. — m. pi. 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

I shall have no great affairs. We shall not have uncommon 
affaire f. pi. rare 2 

cuts. 
estampe f. pi. 1 

future anterior, or Compound of the Future 

Thou shalt have had no consolations. You shall not have had 

f. P i. 

quiet days. 
^anquiUe 2 m. pi. 1 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 179 

CONDITIONAL. 



He should not have bad pictures. They should have no 
mauvais tableau m. pi, 
leisure. 
ioisir m. 

past, or Compound of the Conditional. 

\ should have had no griefs. We should have had no 

chagrin m. pi. de 

troubles. 
peine f. pi. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Have no impatience. Let him not have absurd ideas. Let us 
Sing. — f. absurde 1 

not have dangerous connections. Have no such whims. Let 

dangereux-se liaison f. pi. tel caprice ra. pi. 

them not have so whimsical a project. 
si bizarre 2 projet m. 1 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

That I may have no protectors. That we may have no success. 
protecteur m. pi. succes m. 

preterit, or Compound of the Present 
That he may have had no perseverance. That they may have had 

no valour. 
bravoure f. 

imperfect. 

That thou mightst have no principles of taste. That you 
principe m. pi. gout m. 
might not have a just reward. 

recompense f. 

pluperfect, or Compound of the Imperfect. 

That I might have had good advices. That we might have had 
avis m. pi. 
no news. 
nouvelle f. pi. 



180 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 



THE VERB AVOIR, WITH INTERROGATION AND 
AFFIRMATIVELY. 

To form the interrogation, the learner is to put 
the personal pronoun after the verb in simple- tenses, 
and between the verb and the participle in the 
compound tenses, joining them with a hyphen ; and 
when the verb ends with a vowel, he is to put 
between the verb and the pronoun a /, preceded and 
followed by a hyphen, thus (-£-). For the rest, he 
ought to attend to what has been said in the obser- 
vations made before the exercises on the verb. 

Ai-je des livres ? Have I books ? 

avais-tu du Men ? hadst thou wealth ? 

eut-elle de Vhonnetete? had she honesty? 

avons-nous eu de bons conseils? have we had good counsels ? 

aviez-vous eu de la prudence ? have you had prudence ? 

aura-t-il de V argent ? will he have money ? 

aura-t-elle eu des protecteurs ? will she have had protectors ? 

EXERCISE. 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

Hast thou needles ? Have you coloured maps ? 

aiguille f. pi. enlumine* 2 carte f. pi. 1 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

Have I had pens ? Have we had convenient houses ? 
plume f. pi. commode 2 f. pi. 1 

IMPERFECT. 

Had she silk ? Had they large buildings ? 
soie f. grand m. pi. 

PLUPERFECT. 

Had she had pins ? Had they had extensive fields ? 

epingle f. pi. spacieux 2 champ m. pi. i 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

Had he good shoes ? Had they looking-glasses ? 

Soulier m. pi. miroir m. pi. 

* Masculine adjectives ending in e in the singular, form their feminine by adding 
a mute e,thus enlumine m. enlumince fern. 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. l8l 

PRETERIT ANTERJOR. 

Hadst thou had lace ? Had you had odoriferous shrubs ? 

dentelle 1 odoriferant 2 arbuste m. pi. 1 

FUTURE AESOLUTE. 

Shall I have gold, silver, andplatina? Shall we have good-luck ? 
m. argent m. platine m. bonheur m, 

FUTURE PAST. 

Will she have had joy ? Will they have had company? 
joie f. compagnie f. 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

Shouldst thou have happy moments? Should you have good 
heureux m. pi. 
wine and nice cordials ? 

fin 2 liqueur f. pi. 1 

PAST. 

Should he have had uncommon fruits? Should they have had 
recherches 2 — 1 
rich clothes ? 



THE SAME VERB WITH INTERROGATION AND 
NEGATIVELY. 

In this form of sentences, the learner ought to 
conform to what we have said in the two preceding 
observations on negative and interrogative sen- 
tences, with affirmation, but always placing pas or 
point after the pronoun, whether in simple or 
compound tenses, and ne at the beginning of sen- 
tences, as 

N'ai-je pas des Uvres ? Have I no books ? 

n'avais-tu pas des amis? hadst thou no friends ? 

rta-t-elle -point* a" esprit ? has she no wit ? 

n'avons-nous pas eu de bons pro- have we not had good proceeding ? 

cedes ? 

n'aviez-vous pas eu de nouvelles had you not had new gowns ? 

robes ? 

* As point expresses the French negation much stronger than pas, the prepo- 
sition de takes the place of the article de le, de la, des; but we may say n'a-t-elle 
pas de V esprit ? de Vamitie? de Vhonneur? de la haine? etc. 



182 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 

iCaura-t-il pas des ressources ? will he have no resources ? 

rfaurontelles pas eu de conso- will they have had no consola- 
laiions ? tions ? 

EXERCISE 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

Hast thou no diamonds? Have you passions too violent? 
diamant m. pi. f. pi. trop — te 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

Hast thou not had contempt and even hatred for that man ? 
mepris m. meme haine f. h asp. pour cet 
Have you not had better examples ? 
meilleur exertple m. pi. 

IMPERFECT. 

Had he not a rigid censor? Had they not immoderate 
severed, censeur m. 1 effrene2 

desires ? 
desir m. pi. 

PLUPERFECT. 

Had 1 not had other views? Had we not had amethysts, 
autre vue f. pi. amethiste f. pi. 

rubies, and topazes ? 
ruhis m. pi topaz e f. pi. 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

Had I no great wrongs ? Had we no perfidious friends ? 
tort m. pi. perfide 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

Had he not had too (far-fetched) expressions ? Had they not had 
recherche 2 — f. pi. 1 

excellent models ? 
— 2 modele m. pi. 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

Wilt thou not have a more regular conduct? Will you not 
plus regie 2 conduite f. 1 
have fashionable gowns ? 
a la mode 2 robe f. pi. 1 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

Shall I have had no sweetmeats ? Shall we not have had a good 
confitures f. pi. 

preacher ? 
■prMicateur m. 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 183 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

Should she not have clear and just ideas ? Would they not have a 
clair 2 — 3 1 
more extensive knowledge? 

etendu connaissance f. pi. 

PAST. 

Should she have had no decency? Should they have had no 
decence f. 

rectitude^ 
droiture f. 

Observation. 

The auxiliary verb avoir serves not only to con- 
jugate itself, in the compound tenses, but also to 
conjugate the compound tenses of the verb etre, the 
active, the impersonal, and almost all the neuter 
verbs. 



CONJUGATION 

OF THE 

A 

AUXILIARY VERB, ETRE, TO BE. 



INFINITIVE. 

SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 





PRESENT. 




PAST. 


Sire 


to be 


| avoir ete 
PARTICIPLES. 


to have been 


eianc 
ete 


being 

PAST. 

been 


> ay ant ett 


having been 




FUTURE. 

devant etre about to be 





184 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 





INDICATIVE. 




SIMPLE 


TENSES. 


COMPOUND TENSES. 


PRESENT. 


PRETERIT 


INDEFINITE. 


je suis 


I am 


fai ete 


I have been 


tu es 


thou art 


tu as He 


thou hast been 


il or elle e<t 


he or she is 


il a ete 


he has been 


nous sommes 


we are 


nous avons He 


we have been 


vous etes 


you are 


vous avez ete 


you have been 


ils or ettes sont 


they are 


ils ont ete 


they have been 


IMPERFECT. 


PLUPERFECT. 


fetais 


I was 


f avals ete 


I had been 


tu etais 


thou wast 


tu avais ete 


thou hadst been 


il etait 


he was 


il avait ete 


he had been 


nous etions 


we were 


nous avions ete 


we had been 


vous etiez 


you were 


vous aviez ete 


you had been 


ils etaient 


they were 


ils avaient ete 


they had been 




Obsen 


nation. 





As the adjective in French takes gender and 
number, it must be put in the masculine or femi- 
nine, the singular or plural, as the pronoun subject 
may require; and the adverb which will be found 
in the following exercises, ought to precede the 
adjective. 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

I am very glad. Thou art quite amiable. He is very lively. 

bien aise tout-a-fait ires gai 

She is very lively. We are happy. You are always just. They 
f. heureux toujour s m. 

are witty. They are witty. 
spirituel pi. f. 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

I have been too violent. Thou hast been thoughtless and trifling, 
f. — f. etourdi frivole 

She has been modest, amiable, and sensible. We have been cir- 
modeste aimable — cir- 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 



185 



SI1V 


IPLE TENSES. 
ERIT DEFINITE. 


COMPOUND TENSES. 


PRET 


PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 


jefus 


I was 


feus ete I had been 


tufas 


thou wast 


tu eus ete thou hadst been 


ilfut 


he was 


il eut ete he had been 


nous fumes 


we were 


nous eumes ete we had been 


vousfutes 


you were 


vous eutes ete you had been 


ils furent 


they were 


ils eurent ete they had been 



cumspect and prudent. You have been arrogant and proud. They 

conspect — f. — fier f. 

have been great and magnanimous. 
— nime 

IMPERFECT. 

I was very busy. Thou wast often dissipated. He was 
f. fort occupe f. souvent dissipe 

sometimes lazy. She was pretty. We were quiet. 

quelquefois paresseu.v joli f. tranquille* 

You were sad. They were laborious. They were discreet. 
triste m. laborieux f. discret 

PLUPERFECT. 

T had been inconsiderate, and perhaps imprudent. Thou hadst 
inconsidere peut-etre — 

been envious and jealous. She had been enterprising and vain. 

envieux jaloux entreprenant — 

We had been presumptuous and bold. You had been avaricious. 
presomptueux hardi avaricieux 

They had been weak and timid. 
f. faible timide 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

I was always constant. Thou wast wise and sedate. He was 
— sage pose 

ingenious. She was faithful. We were firm and courageous. 

ingenieux fidele k ferme courageux 

You were good and beneficent. They were vicious, They were 

bienfaisant m. vicieux f. 

charitable. 



* Tranquille and rebellehave the same termination for both genders. 



186 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



FUTURE 


ABSOLUTE. 


FUTURE 


ANTERIOR. 




je serai 


I shall or will be 


faurai ete 


I shall or will\ 








have 




tu seras 


thou wilt be 


tu auras ete 


thou wilt have 


c 


il sera 


he will be 


il aura 6te 


he will have 




nous serons 


we shall be 


nous aurons ete 


we shall have 




vous serez 


you shall be 


vous aurez ete 


you will have 




ils seront 


they shall be 


ils auront ete 


they will have 





PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

I had been grateful. Thou hadst been reasonable and virtuous. 
reconnaissant raisonnable vertueux 

He had been liberal. We had been valiant. You had been uneasy, 
— vaillant inquiet 

morose, and peevish. They had been inconstant and guilty. 
bourru chagrin — coupable 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

I shall be modest and shy. Thou wilt always be pettish, 

— te reserve quinteux 

obstinate, and captious. She will be civil and polite. We 
opinidtre pointilleux honnete poli 

shall be mild and complaisant. You will then always be mad and 
doux — done fou 

rash. They will be ridiculous. 
temeraire ridicule 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

I shall have been deceived. Thou wilt have been artful and 
trompe artificieux 

crafty. He will have been tedious and troublesome. We shall 
ruse ennuyeux importun 

have been morose. You will have been illustrious and famous. 
— iUustre fameux 

They will have been reprehensible. 

CONDITIONAL. 



I should be invincible. Thou wouldst be malicious and mcorn- 
— malicieux — 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 



187 



CONDITIONAL. 

SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 





PRESENT. 


PAST. 


je serais 


I should, would, 
or could be 


faurais ete I should -» 


tu serais 


thou wouldst be 


tu aurais ete thou wouldst 


il serait 


he would be 


il aurait ete he would 


nous serious 


we should be 


nous aurions ete we should 


vous seriez 


you should be 


vous auriez ete you should 


Us seraient 


they would be 

IMPER 


ils auraient ete they would J 
&TIVE. 




Sois 


Be (thou) 




quit soit 


let him be 




soyons 


let us be 




soyez 


be (ye) 




qu'ils soient, or\ 
qvCelles soient j 


let them be 



gible. She would be quick and lovely. We should be victorious- 
vif agreable victorieux 

You would be learned, skilful, and ingenious. They would be 
savant habile — nieux m 

crafty and greedy. 
astucieux avare 



I should have been secret and (very close). Thou wouldst 

impenetrable 
have been frolicsome and a jeerer. He would have been quick 
espiigle * goguenard. prompt 

and impetuous. We should have been silly and simple. 

impetueux sot niais 

You would have been inconsequent. They would have been 

excusable 

Observation, 

We say also, in the conditional past feusse ete, 
tu eusses ete, il eut ete, nous eussions ete, vous eussiez 
ttL ils emsent ete. 



188 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 



PRESENT. 



que je so is 
que tu sois 

qxCil soit 
que nous soyons 
que vous soyez 
quHls soient 



that I may be 
that thou mayst 

be 
that he may be 
that we may be 
that you may be 
that they may be 



IMPERFECT. 



quejefusse 
que tu fusses 

qu'ilfut 



that I might be 
that thou mightst 

be 
that he might be 



que nousfussions that we might be 
que vousfussiez that you might be 
juHls fussent that they might be 



PRETERIT. 

quefaie He that I may \ 

que tu aies ete that thou 

mayst 
quHl ait ete that he may ^ 

que nous ayons ete that we may 
que vous ayez ete that you may 
qu'ils aient ete that they may 

PLUPERFECT. 

quefeusse ete that I might \ 
que tu eusses ete that thou 
mightst 
qxCil eut ete that he might 

que nous eussions that we might 

ete 
que vous eussiez that you might 

ete 
qu'ils eussent ete that theymight 



IMPERATIVE. 

Be just, liberal, honest, and disinterested. Let him be metho- 
Sing. desinteresse metho- 

dical and clear. Let her be gentle, chaste, and good. Let us be 
dique doux 

equitable, humane, and prudent. Be sober, constant, and moderate. 

— humain — sobre — modere 

Let them be simple and judicious. Let them be sprightly, witty, 
m. — judicieux f. vif 

and amiable. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

That I may always be steady in my principles. That thou 
inebranlable dans — cipes 

mayst be invariable. That he may be docile and grateful. That we 

may be perfect. That you may be saving and careful. That 

parfait econome soigneux 

they may be punctual. 
ponctuel 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 189 

PRETERIT. 

That I may have been grossly duped and deceived. That 
grossierement dupe trompe 

thou mayst have been ungrateful and perjured. That he may have 

ingrat parjure 

been inconstant and deceitful. That we may have been so credulous. 

— trompeur si credule 

That you may have been suspicious. That they may have been 

soupconneux 
ferocious and barbarous. 
fercce barbare 

IMPERFECT. 

That] I might be proud and haughty. That thou mightst be 
orgueilleux hautain 

perfidious arid rebel, That she might be fickle, vain, and imper- 

perfide rebeUe leger — — 

tinent. That we might be flatterers, mean and cringing. That 

flatteur bas rampant 

you might be hasty and cross. That they might be scornful 
brusque bourru dedaigneux 

and arrogant. 

PLUPERFECT. 

That I might have been so foolish and so stupid. That thou 
imbecile stupide 

mightst have been so awkward. That she might have been so 
maladroit 
unreasonable. That we might have been so uncivil. That 
deraisonnable malhonnete 

you might have been so sharp and waspish. That they might 

mordant si caustique 

have been (puffed up) with pride. 
bouffis de orgueil 



190 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Simple Negative Sentences, intermixed with Interro- 
gative ones, either Affirmative or Negative. 

Observe that the personal pronouns which serve 
for interrogation, and the two negative words ne 
and pas, preserve the same place with the auxiliary 
verb etre as with avoir. In all these phrases, the 
adjective is the last word. 

EXERCISE. 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

I am not satisfied with him. Are we discreet enough ? 
content de hi 2 assez 1 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

I have not always been so condescending. Have we been less 

facile moins 

distrustful ? 
defiant 

IMPERFECT. 

Didst thou not ask too much ? You were not complaisant. 
etre trop exigeant — 

PLUPERFECT. 

Had he been respectful ? Had they not been too fiery ? 
respectueux bouillant 

PRETERIT. 

Was she fickle ? Were they not imprudent and malignant ? 
volage f. — malin irr. adj. 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

Hadst thou not been too rigid? You had not been (far distant). 
rigide eloigne 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

I shall never be froward. Shall we always be unhappy ? 
reviche rnalheureux 

FUTURE ANTERIOR*. 

Wilt thou not have been too merry ? Will you not have been 

enjoue 
justly punished ? 
justement 2 puni 1 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 191 



CONDITIONAL. 



PRESENT. 

Would he be disdainful? Would they not be too indulgent ? 
dedaigneux — 

PAST. 

Would she have been too sanguine. Would they have been haughty, 
— altier 

Observation . 

The auxiliary verb etre serves to conjugate the 
passive verbs through all their tenses, the compound 
tenses of the reflective verbs, and those of about 
fifty neuter verbs. 



FIRST CONJUGATION 

in er y 
AIM-ER, TO LOVE. 

MODEL OF ALL THE REGULAR VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 



INFINITIVE. 

SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 



PRESENT. PAST. 

aim-ev to love [ avoir aim-e to have loved 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT. ^ 

aim ' mt PA sx ving \ a y ant aim - k havin s loved 

aim-e m. -ee f. loved J 

FUTURE. 

devant aim-er being about to love 



192 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 





INDICATIVE. 


PRESENT. 


PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 


jai-me 


I love 


fai aim-e I have loved 


tu aim-es 


thou lovest 


tu as aim-e thou hast loved 


il aim-e 


he loves 


il a aim-e he has loved 


nous aim-orxs 


we love 


nous avons aim-e we have loved 


vous aim-ez* 


you love 


vous avez aim-e you have loved 


Us aim-ent 


they love 


Us out aim-e they have loved 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOLLOWING 
EXERCISES. 

Henceforth, we shall intermix simple phrases 
with interrogative and negative ones; upon which 
the learner must observe : 

1. That he is to give to the verb of the sentence 
the termination of the verb aimer , as 

nitive Mood Present. 
Aim-er, to love Parl-ev, to speak 

Indicative Mood Present. 

f aim-e I love je parl-e I speak 

tu aim-es thou lovest tuparl-es thouspeakest 

il aim-e he loves il parl-e he speaks 

nous aim- ons we love nous pa? I- ons we speak 

vous aim-ez you love vous parl-ez you speak 

Us aim-ent they love Us parl-ent they speak 

And so on through the whole verb. 

2. That when there is an adverb, he ought to place 
it after the verb, in simple tenses, and between the 
auxiliary and the participle, in compound tenses, 
w r hich is a general rule for all the verbs, when that 
adverb is only a single word, except in a few r 
instances, which shall be mentioned in their proper 
place. 

* The learner must call to mind that though we say, through politeness, vous 
instead of tu, in speaking to a single person, in writing we never give the mark of 
the plural to any adjective or participle relating to vous, unless applied to more 
than one, therefore we say in speaking to one person, vous etes aimable and not 
aimables. 



OF REGULAR VEKBS. 193 

3. That whenever he shall find, in the interro- 
gative phrases, a substantive in subject, he is to put 
that substantive at the head of the sentence, leaving 
the pronoun, which serves for the interrogation, in 
the place already pointed out; as man frere est-il 
venu ? is my brother come ? 

4. That he must conform to the observations on 
the exercises on the verb avoir, when de is to be 
placed between the verb and the substantive. 

5. That he is to translate my, thy, his, her, or its, 
by mon, ton, son, before a masculine singular, or a 
feminine beginning with a vowel or h mute ; by ma, 
ta, sa, before a feminine singular, beginning with a 
consonant ; and by mes, tes, ses, before a plural of 
both genders ; and our, your, their, by notre, voire, 
leur, before a singular, and nos, vos, leurs, before a 
plural*. 

6. That he is to translate this or that, before a 
substantive by ce, before a substantive masculine 
beginning with a consonant ; by cet, before a sub- 
stantive masculine beginning with a vowel or h mute ; 
by cette, before a noun feminine ; and these or those 
by ces. 

7. That though, in English, the article the is 
often understood, yet it ought always to be ex- 
pressed in French after the verb. 

* It must be remembered that by euphony we say mon, ton, son, instead of ma 
ta, sa, before a feminine substantive beginning with a vowel or h mute, as men 
time, son humeur, instead of ma drne, sa humeur. 



194 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



j aim-ais 
tu aim-ais 
il aim- ait 
nous aim-ions 
vous aim-iez 
its aim-aient 



IMPERFECT. 

I did love 
thou didst love 
he did love 
we did love 
you did love 
they did love 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



PLUPERFECT. 

j'avais aim-e I had loved 
tu avais aim-e thou hadst loved 
il avait aim-e he had loved 
nous avions aim-e we had loved 
vous aviez aim-e you had loved 
Us avaient aim-e they had loved 



EXERCISES. 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT*. 

I willingly give that plaything to your sister. Dost thou not 
volontiers dormer joujou m. soeur f. 

incense thy enemies ? He does not propose a salutary advice to his 
irriter * proposer salutaire 2 in. 1 

friends. We sincerely love peace and tranquillity. Do 

sincdrement art. f. art. = f. 

you admire the spectacle of nature ? Do they not comfort the 
admirer — art. — f. * consoler 

afflicted ? 
afflige m. pi. 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

I have (given up) my favourite horse to my cousin. Hast 
ceder favori 2 cheval m. 1 — m. 

thou not exchanged watches with thy sister? Has he given 
changer de montre f. 1 

fine engravings to his pupil? We have spoken (a long- while) of 
de gravure f. pi. eleve parler long -temps 

your adventure. Have you not insisted too much upon that point ? 

* sur — m. 



aventure f. 
Have they prepared their 
preparer 



insister 
ball dresses? 
de bal 2 habit m. pi. 

IMPERFECT. 

_ incessantly thought of my misfortunes. 
sans cesse penser a malheur m. pi. 



Didst thou dread 
* redouter 



* Henceforth, trie learner will observe that in the following exercises, all the 
verbs will be found in the present of the infinitive mood, as the above, donner, to 
give , but it is the pupil's part to put the verb in its right tense according to the 
English expression ; in this instance, donner must be altered into the first person 
singular of the Indicative mood, je donne, I give. 



OF REGULAR VERES. 



195 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 



j aim-ox 
tu aim-3.s 
il aim-Si 
nous aim-ames 
vous aim-ates 
ils aim- e rent 



1 loved 

thou lovedst 
he loved 
we loved 
you loved 
they loved 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

j'eus aim-e I had loved 

tu ens aim-e thou hadst loved 

il eut aim-e he had loved 

nous eumes aim-e we had loved 
vous eutes aim-e you had loved 
ils eurent aim-e they had loved 



his presence and firmness? Did she not accuse her friend of 

f. -pvon. fermete f. * accuser arnief. 

levity ? We did not protect that bad man. You despised a 
legerete f. * proteger* mediant mepriser 

vain erudition. Did the Romans disdain so weak an enemy? 
2 If. * dedaigner faible 2 m. 1 

PLUPERFECT. 

I had drained an unwholesome marsh. Hadst thou not 
dessecher mal sain 2 marais 1 

married a man rich, but, unluckily, without education ? Had 
epouser malheureusement sans — f. 

he rejected these advantageous offers? We had not 

rejeter\ avantageux 2 offre f pi. 1 

long listened to the singing of the birds. Had you already 
long-temps ecouter * chant oiseau m. pi. deja 

studied geography and history? Had they not procured 

etudier art. geographie f. art. histoire procurer 2 

him a company of cavalry, horses, and arms ? 

lui 1 compagnie f. cavalerie de art. pr. art. arme f. pi. 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

Did I not gladly give peaches and flowers 

* avec plaisir de art. peche f. pi. pr.-art fleur f. pi. 

to my neighbours? Thou forgettest an essential circumstance. 

voisin m. pi. oublier essentiel d 2 cir Constance f. 

Did he not relate that charming history with (a great deal) of 

* raconter =f. beaucoupX 
grace ? Did we not show courage, constancy, 

* montrer de art. cont. m. pr.-art. f. 

* See p. 201, remarks on the verbs ending in eger. 

1 See p. 201, observations on verbs ending in eter, as the above rejeter. 
X Beaucoup, plus, moins, are never followed by des, but by de or d' ; except bien, 
which requires after it the articles du, de la, de V, des. 



196 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



; aim-erai 
tu aim-eras 
il aim-era, 
nous aim-erons 
vous aim-erez 
Us ai m-eront 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

T shall love 
thou shalt love 
he shall love 
we shall love 
you shall love 
they shall love 



COMPOUND TENSES. 
FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

f aurai aime I shall have 
tu auras aim-e thou shalt have 
il aura aime he shall have 
nous a ur oris aim-e we shall have 
vous aurez aim-e you shall have 
Us auront aim-e they shall have 



CONDITIONAL. 



PEESENT. 

/aim-erah I should love 

tu aim-erais thou shouldst love 

il aim- erait he should love 

nous aim- erioris we should love 
vous aim-eriez you should love 
Us aim-emient they should love 



PAST. 

faurais aim-e I should \ 
tu aurais aim-e thou shouldst/ p* 

il aurait aim-e he should ' S 

nous aur ions aime we should (^ 

vous auriez aim-e you should I J§ 

Us auraient aim-e they should ) °* 



and experience ? Did you visit the grotto and the grove ? 

pr.-art. f. * visiter grotte f. bois m. 

They did not generously forgive their enemies. 
* genereusement pardonner a 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

1 had soon wasted mv money, and exhausted my resources. 
hientdt manger m. epuiser — f. pi. 

I lads t thou very soon reinforced thy party? Had not Alexander 
* vite renforcer parti m. 2 Alexandre 1 

soon surmounted all obstacles ? We had not soon enough shut 

surmonter tous art. — m. pi. tot 2 assez \fermer 

the shutters, and (laid down) the curtains. Had you not 

baisser rideau m. pi. 

In the twinkling of an eye, they had dispersed the 
* un coup * ozil disperser 



volet m. pi. 
quickly done? 
achever 

mob. 
populace f. 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE.* 

I shall relieve the poor. Wilt thou faithfully keep that 

soulager pauvre m. pi. fidelement garder 

secret? Will he not consult enlightened judges ? We shall 

— m. consulter de art. 2 juge 1 



* See p.165 how to form the future and conditional. 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 197 

IMPERATIVE. 

Aim- e* Love (thou) 

qu'il aim-e let him love 

aim- ons let us love 

aim-ez love (ye) 

qu'ils aim-eut let them love 



not prefer pleasure to glory and riches to honour. 

prefer er art. m. art. = art. art. 

By such a conduct, will you not afflict your father and 

tel 2 1 conduite f. 3 a ffl l 9 er pron. 

mother? Will they astonish their hearers? 

etonner auditeur m. pi. 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

I shall soon have finished this book. By thy submission, shalt 
achever soumission f. 

thou not have appeased his anger? Will he have triumphed ovei 

apaiser colere f. triompher de 

his enemies? We, perhaps, shall not have rewarded enough the 
ennemi recompenser 2 1 

merit of this good man. Will you not have run to his as- 
merite m. de bien 2 1 volar re- 

sistance ? Will they have brought money? 

cours m. apporter de art. 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

Should I form conjectures without number? Thou 

former de art. — f. pi. nombre m. 

shouldst not avoid so great a danger. Would he not unravel 

eviter 2 1 — 3 dibrouiUer 

that business ? We would (drive away) the importunate. Would 

affaire f. chasser importun m. pi. 

you not discover that atrocious plot? They would not unfold 

devoiler atroce 2 complot m. 1 demeler 
the clue of that intrigue. 
fil m. — f. 

PAST. 

I should have liked hunting, fishing, and the country 

aimer art. chasse f. art. peche f. campagne f. 

* The second person singular of the imperative, takes s after e before y and en, 
as portes-en a ton frere, carry some to thy brother ; apportes y tes livres, bring thy 
books thither. 



198 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



quefaim-e 
que tu aim-es 



that I may 
that thou 

mayst 
that he may 



quHl aim-e 

que nous aim-ions that we may 

que vous aim-iez that you may 
qu'ils aim-ent that they may. 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



PRETERIT. 

que faie aim-e that I may 
que tu aies aim-e that thou 

mayst 
quil ait aim-e that he may 
que nous ayons that we may 

aim-e 
que vous ayez that you may 

aim-e 
quHls aient aim-e that they may. 



if, etc. Wouldst thou not have played, if, etc. ? Would he not have 

jouer 
bowed to the company, if, etc. ? Would we gladly have praised his 
saluer * f. louer 

pride and incivility? You would have awakened every 

m. pron. malhonnetete f. 

body. Would they have paid their debts. 
monde payer dettei'. pL 



eveiller tout le 



Observation. 

We say also, in the conditional \)diSt,feusse aime, 
tu eusses alme, il eilt aime, ?wus eussions aime, vous 
eussiez crime, Us eussent crime. 

N. B. — There are a second pluperfect, f avals eu 
aime, tu avals eu alme, etc. ; a third future, f aural 
eu alme, tu auras eu aime, etc. ; and a third condi- 
tional, jaurals eu alme, tu aurals eu aime, etc. 
But these tenses are seldom used, because such a 
precision is not often necessary. 









IMPERATIVE. 








In 

Dans 


every 
tout 


tes 


action, 

- f. pi. 


consult 
consulter 


the 


light of 
lumiere f. 


art. 


reason. 
raison f. 


Let him love 


art. 


iustice, 

_f. 


peace, 
art. — f. 


and 


virtue, 
art. vertu 


Let 


us not 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



199 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



IMPERFECT. 

que fai?n-asse that I might 
que tu ai?n-asses that thou 
mightst 
quHl aim-at that he mightF 

que nous aim-as- that we might) 

sions 
que vous aim-as- that you mightl 

siez 
quHls aim-assent that theymightj 



PLUPERFECT. 

quefeusse aim-e that I might ^ 
que tueusses aim-e that thou 
mightst 
quHleut aim-e that he might 
que nous eussions that we might 

aim-e 
que vous eussiez that you might 

aim-e 
qu'ils eussent aimethat they might 



cease to work. Do not omit so useful and interesting 
cesser* de travailler negliger de art. 2 si 3 

details. Let them sacrifice their interest to the public good. 
— m. pi. 1 sacrifier interet — 2 bien m. 1 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

That I may not always listen to a severe censor of my defects. 
* — 2 censeur V defautm.ipl. 
That thou mayst find real friends. That he may adorn his 

trouver de vrai parer 

speeches with the graces of a pure diction. That she may remain 

discours de — — 2 — f . 1 Tester 

in her boudoir. That we may so hastily condemn the world. 

— m. legerement condamner monde m. 

That you may pout incessantly- That they may work more 

bouder plus 

willingly. 

PRETERIT. 

That I may have caressed insolence, and flattered pride. 
caresser art. — f. flatter art. 



IMPERATIVE, conjugated with a Negative. 



Ne cesse pas 

quHl ne cesse pas 

ne cessons pas or point 

ne cessez pas or point 

qu'ils ne cessent pas or point 



Cease thou not 
let him not cease 
let us not cease 
cease ye not 
let them not cease 



200 OF REGULAR VERBS. 

That thou mayst have added nothing to that work. That he may 

ajouter ne rien* 
have carried despair into his soul That we may have 

porter art. desespoir dans 
blamed a conduct so prudent and so wise. That you may not have 
bldmer f. — 

exasperated so petulant a character. That they may have not 

exasperer — 2 caractdre m. 1 

(taken advantage) of the circumstances. 
prcfiter circonstance f. pi. 

IMPERFECT. 

That I might not copy his example. That thou mightst 
imiter exemple m. 

(give up) perfidious friends. That he might inhabit a 

abandonner de art. habiter 

hut instead of a palace. That we might not fall at the 
chaumiere f. au lieu palais m. tomber a contr. 

feet of an illegitimate king. That you might respect the laws 
pied m. {[legitime 2 1 respecter hi f. pi. 

of your country. That they might not speak at random. 

pays m. parler a tort et a travers* 

PLUPERFECT. 

That I might not have burnt that work. That thou mightst 
bruler ouvrage m. 

not have contemplated the beauties of the country. That he might 

contempler campagne 

have perfected his natural qualities. That we might not have 
— -fectionner naturel 2 qualite f. pi. 
gained the victory. That you might have enchanted the public 
remporter victoire f. enchanter — m. 

That they might have struck their enemies with fear. 
jrapper de crainte 

* Ne before the auxiliary avoir, and rien immediately after it. 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



201 



Thus are conjugated, like aimer, all the regular 
verbs which end in er in the present of the infinitive 
mood, such as 



estim-ev 


achev-er 


mang-er 


cachet-ex 


pri-ex 


jou-er 


men-ex 


partag-ex 


essay -er 


cri-er 


bru-ler 


pes-tr 


appel-ex 


employ -ex 


etc. etc 


remu-ev 


enlev-ex 


amoncel-ex 


appuy-ex 




rapport-ex 


ador-ex 


jet-ex 


mendi-ex 





In verbs ending in -ger, when e is followed by 
the vowels a or o, the e is preserved, as mang-e&xit, 
jug-eons, je neglig-e&\, instead of mang-&nt,jug-ons, 
je neglig-&i. 

2. In verbs ending in -cer, a cedilla is put under c 
when followed by a or o, as sucons,plaqons,feffacai, 
to prevent the bad sound sucon (sukon). 

3. In verbs ending in oyer and uyer, the y is 
changed into i before a mute e, as femploie, il 
essuie, j'appule-rai, il nettoie-rait ; instead o{j' em- 
ploye, etc. This change likewise extends to verbs 
in ayer and eyer, as il paie, fessaier-&i, elle grasseye, 
or grasseie, to lisp, to speak thick. 

4. In verbs ending in eler and eter, the Zand t are 
doubled when followed by an e mute, as app-elev, 
il app-e\\e ; j-eter, jejetter-ai 

5. In interrogations, the first person singular of 
the present indicative changes e mute into acute t, 
and likewise in some verbs of the second conjugation 
ending in vrir, frir, and lir, as negligd-je t aime-je? 
offre-je ? cueille-je ? instead of aime-je ? offre-je ? 

6. In the verbs in ayer, oyer, uyer, as essayer, to 
try; employer, to employ; appuyer, to lean upon; 
y is followed by i in the two first persons plural of 
the imperfect indicative, in order to recognise them 
from the same persons of the present indicative, as, 
present indicative, nous essayons, vous essayez ; 

k 2 



202 OF REGULAR VERBS. 

imperfect indicative, nous essay-ions, vous essay-iez, 
nous employ-ions, vous appuy-iez. — [Acad.) 

In the verbs in ier, as prier, to pray ; crier, to cry ; 
etc., the i is doubled in the two first persons plural 
of the imperfect indicative and of the subjunctive 
mood present, for the same reasons as above ; thus, 
we write : nous jjriions, we were praying ; vous 
priiez, you were praying ; que nous criions, que vous 
criiez, that we or you may cry. 

7. E in the penultima of infinitives ending in 
ever, ener, ecer, eser, when mute by its position, as 
in achever, to achieve ; amener, to bring , depecer, 
to carve out; peser, to weigh, takes the grave 
accent whenever it is followed in the same word by 
another final mute e, as in facheve, tie enleves, il 
amene, Us depecent, pese, quails menent, etc. 

N. B. — The above observation about doubling the 
z, or putting it after y in the first and second 
persons plural of the imperfect indicative and sub- 
junctive mood present, applies also to all verbs 
whose present participle ends in yant or iant, as 
croyant, fuyant, voyant 9 riant, etc. 



SECOND CONJUGATION 
IN IB. 

This conjugation is divided into four branches, 
which are distinguished both by the first person 
singular and plural of the present of the indicative. 

In the subsequent tables, we shall not insert the 
compound tenses, because they are the same in all 
the verbs. 



OF REGULAR VERBS 



203 



PARADIGMS, OR MODELS. 



BRANCH I. 

1st. per. sing. 

-is 

plur. -issons 

to finish 

fin-ix 



finishing 
finissant 



finished 
fin-i m. -ie f. 



INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 



BRANCH II. 

1st. per. sing. 

-s 

plur. -tons 

to feel 

sent-ir 



BRANCH III. 

1st per. sing. 

-e 

plur. -ons 

to open 



ouvr-iv 
PARTICIPLES. 



PRESENT. 



feeling 
sent-smz 



opening 
ouvr-ant 



PAST. 

felt opened 



BRANCH IV. 

1st. per. sing. 

-iens 

plur. -enons 

to hold 

ten-ii 



holding 
ten-vent 



held 



sent-i m. -ie f. ouv-ei'tm. -te f ten-n m. -ue f. 



Observation. 

The learner is to give to the verb of the phrase 
the termination of the verb finir, as 



iFSn-ir 

je fin-is 

tu fin-is 

il fin-it 

nous fin-issons 

vous fin-issez 

ils /m-issent 



Embett-h 
femb ell-is 
tu embell-is 
il embell-it 
nous embell-issons 
vous embell-issez 
ils embett-issent 



Flech-iv 
jefiech-is 
tuflech-is 
ilflech-it 
nous fiech-issons 
vous fiech-issez 
Us flech-issent 



And so on through all the tenses. 

We shall no longer put an asterisk under the 
emphatical verb do, of the negative and interrogative 
phrases. 



204 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 





INDICATIVE. 






PRESENT. 




BRANCH I. 


BRANCH II. 


BRANCH III. 


BRANCH IV. 


I finish 


I feel 


I open 


I hold 


je fin-is 


je sens 


j'ouvr-e 


je tiens 


tu fin-is 


tu sens 


tu ouvr-es 


tu tiens 


i I fin-it 


il sen-t 


il ouvr-e 


il tien-t 


nous ym-issons 


nous sent-ons 


nous onyr-ons 


nous ten- on s 


vous fin-issez 


vous sent-ez 


vous ouvr-ez 


vous ten-ez 


ils fin-issent 


ils sent-ent 


ils ouvr -ent 


ils tien-r\eiit 




IMPERFECT. 




I did finish 


I did feel 


I did open 


I did hold 


je fin-issais 


je sent-ais 


jvuvr-ais 


je ten-ais 


tu /n-issais 


tu sent-ais 


tu ouvr-ais 


tu ten-ais 


ilfin-issait 


il sent-ait 


il euvr-ait 


il ten-ait 


nous fin-issions 


nous sent-ions 


nous ouvr-ions 


nons ten-ions 


vous fin-issiez 


vous sent-iez 


vous ouvr-iez 


vous ten-iez 


ib fin-issaient 


ils sent-aieut 


ils ouvr-aient 


ils tew-aient 



exercises on the First Branch. 
INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

I choose this picture. Dost thou never obey the first 
choisir tableuu m. obeir a art. premier 

impulse ? Does he thus define that word ? Do we not enrich 
mouvement ainsi definir mot m. enrichir 

our mind with the beautiful descriptions of the best poets? 

de — f. pi. meilleur poete m. pi. 

Do you not pity his sorrows ? They (are finishing) at this 

compatir a mal m. pi. ind. pres. dans le 

moment. 
— m. 

IMPERFECT. 

I did forearm his soul against the dangers of seduction. 

premunir contre — art. — f. 

Thou didst not weaken his prejudices. Did the wise Socrates 

affaiblir prejuge m. pi. sage Socrate 

applaud the follies of the young Alcibiades ? Did we not fre- 

applaudir a travels m. pi. jeune Alcibiade Jre- 

quently warn our friends of the bad state of their affairs ? You 

quemment avertir contr. etat ~-re 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



20c 





PRETERIT. 




BRANCH I. 


BRANCH II. 


BRANCH III. 


' BRANCH IV. 


I finished 


I felt 


I opened 


I held 


je fin-is 


je sent-is 


j 'ou v?*-is 


je tin-s 


tu Jin-is 


tu sent-is 


tu ouvr-is 


tu tl?t-$ 


il fin-it 


il sent-it 


il ouvr-it 


il tin- 1 


nous fin-imes 


nous sent-imes 


nous ouvi^-imes 


nous tt?i-wes 


vous fin-ites 


vous sent-ltes 


vous ouvr-ites 


vous tin-tes 


ils fin-irent 


Us sent-irent 


ils ouvr-iient 


ils tin-rent 




FUTURE. 




I shall finish 


I shall feel 


I shall open 


I shall hold 


je fin- irai 


je sent-irai 


fouvr-imi 


je tiendr-ai 


tufin-ir as 


tu sent-iras 


tu ouvr-iras 


tu tiendr-as 


ilfin-ira. 


il sent-ira 


il ouvrr-ira, 


il tiendr-a, 


nous fin-irons 


nous sent-irons 


nous ouvr-ii'OJis 


nous tiendr-ons 


vous fin-irez 


vous sent-irez 


vous ouvr-irez 


vous tiendr-ez 


Us fin-iront 


ils sent-iront 


ils ouvr-iiowt 


ils tiendr-ont 



did not cure their wounds Did they not invade an immense 

guerir blessure f. pi. envahir — 2 

country ? 
pays 1 

PRETERIT. 

I softened my father by my submission. Didst thou not demolish 
flechir soum — f. demolir 

thy house ? He did not succeed, through thoughtlessness. Did not 

f. reussir par etourderie f. 

Alexander sully his glory by his pride ? We never betrayed 

*ternir ne 1 jamais 3 tralur 2 

that important secret. You did not free your mind from the 

— 2 1 in. affranchir contr. pi. 

shackles of prejudices. Bid the ancient philosophers enjoy 

chaine f. pi. art. in. pi. philosophe m. pi. jouir 

great consideration ? 
de un — f. 

FUTURE. 

Shall I succeed in this business? Wilt thou not (clear up) my 
reussir affaire f. eclair cir 

doubts ? Will he not embellish his country seat ? We shall 

chute in. pi. embellir maison de campagne f. 



* See p. 193, third observation. 



206 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



BRANCH I. 

I should finish 
jefin-ir&is 
tu jfm-irais 
ilfin-irait 
?wus Jin-'mons 
vousfin-iviez 
ils jfr/i-iraient 

Finish (thou) 
fin- is 

qu'il ^ra-isse 
jfoi-issons 
Jin-issez 
qu'ils Jin-issent 



CONDITIONAL. 

BRANCH II. BRANCH I] 

I should feel 



je sent-irais 
tu sent-irais 
il sent- i rait 
nous se?^-irions 
vous sent-iriez 
ils siHl-iraient 



I should open 
fouvr-mis 
tu ouvr-ira-is 
il owvr-irait 
nous oM^r-irions 
vous ouvr-iriez 
ils owt;r-iraient 



IMPERATIVE. 



Feel (thou) 
sens 

quil sent-e 
sent -ons 
sent-ez 
qu'ils sent-eJit 



Open (thou) 

ouvr-e 
qvHil ouvr-e 
ouvr-ons 
ouvr-ez 
qu'ils ouvr-ent 



BRANCH IV. 

I should hold 
je tiendr-ais 
tu tiendr-ais 
il tiendr-ait 
nous tiendr-ions 
vous tiendr-iez 
ils tiendr-aient 

Hold (thou) 
tien-s 

qu'il tien-ne 
ten-ons 
ten-ez 
qu'ils tien-nent 



not sully 

ternir 

Will 



the 



splendour 
eclat m. 



of 



life by an 
vie f. 



unworthy action. 
indigne 2 — f . 1 
you not adorn your mind with the splendour of the 
embellir de briUant art. 

imagery of Fenelon? Will they enrich their country by their 
image f . pi. de — p ays 

industry ? 
Industrie 

CONDITIONAL. 

I should still cherish life. Couldst thou soften that 

cherir art. attendrir 

flinty heart? Could this physician cure that cruel disease ? 
de rocher 2 cozur m. 1 medecin guerir — maladie f. 

Should we not fulfil our promise ? You would not perish through 

remplir promesse f. perir de 

misery. Would men always (grow old) without* growing wiser 
misere f. art. vieillir devenir 

if they reflected on the shortness of life ? 
reflechir ind.-2 sur brievete f. art. f. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Do not defile thy imagination with those images. Let her unite 
salir — par ■ * unir 

* After the preposition as, in, by, from, of, after, without, &c., the French always 
use the present of the infinitive instead of the gerund or present participle. 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



207 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 





PRESENT. 




BRANCH I. 


BRANCH II. 


BRANCH III. 


BRANCH IV. 


That 


That 


That 


That 


I may finish 


I may feel 


I may open 


I may hold 


que je fin-isse 


que je sent-e 


quej'ouvr-e 


que je tien-ne 


que tufiji-isses 


que tu sent-es 


que tu ouvr-es 


que tu tien-nes 


qu'il fin-isse 


qu'il sent-e 


qxCil ouvr-e 


qu'il tien-ne 


que nous fin- 


que nous sent- 


que nous ouvr- 


que nous ten- 


issions 


ions 


ions 


ions 


que vous fin- 


que vous sent- 


que vous ouvr. 


que vous ten-iez 


issiez 


iez 


iez 




qu Us fin-issent 


qu'ils sent-ent 

IMPEI 


qu'ils ouvr-ent 

tFECT. 


qu'ils Hen-nent 


That 


That 


That 


That 


I might finish 


I might feel 


I might open 


I might hold 


que je fin-isse 


que je sent-isse 


que j'ouvr -isse 


queje tin- sse 


que tu fin-isses 


que tu sent-isses 


que tu ouvr-isses 


que tu tin-sses 


qu'il fin-It 


qu'il sent-it 


qu'il ouvr-it 


qu'il tin-t 


que nousfin- 


que nous sent- 


que nous ouvr- 


que nous tin- 


issions 


issions 


issions 


ssions 


que vousfin- 


que vous sent- 


que vous ouvr- 


que vous tin- 


issiez 


issiez 


issiez 


ssiez 


qu'ils fin-issent 


qu'ils sent-issent 


qu'ils ouvr -issent 


qu'ils tin-ssent 



gracefulness to beauty. Let us feed the poor. Shudder 
art. grace f. art. nourrir pauvre Fremir 

with fear and shame. Let them (grow pale) at the recol- 

de crainte pr. honte h asp. pdlir a sou- 

lection of their crimes. 
venir m. — 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

That I may never* blemish my reputation. That thou mayst 
fletrir — f. 

shorten that work. That he may not enjoy his glory. That 
raccourcir jouir de f. 

we may not supply the wants of the poor. That you may 
fournir a besoin m, pi. 



* Ne jamais, never, requires ne before the veib and jamais after, in the simple 

tenses. 



208 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



That they may establish wise and just 

etablir de art. 2 3 



punish the guilty. 
punir coupable 
laws. 
1 

IMPERFECT. 

That I might stun the whole neighbourhood. That thou 
etourdir 2 tout 1 voisinage m. 
mightst (swallow up) so many riches. That idleness might not 
engloutir tant de art. paresse f. 

blunt his genius. That we might disobey the laws. That you 
engourdir m. desobeir a 

might not dazzle the eyes of a vain and fickle world. That they 

eblouir ceil — 2 leger 3 1 

might weaken the force of their reasons. 
affaiblir — f. raisonnement 



exercises on the Second, Third, and Fourth Branches. 

Observation. 

The learner must observe to give to the verbs of 
the second branch the terminations of the verb 
sentir, as 





Sen-tiY 




Sor- tir 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


je sens 


nous sen-tons 


je sors 


nous sor-tons 


tu sens 


vous sen-tez 


tu sors 


vous sor-tez 



il sen~t Us sent-ent il sor-t ils sor-tent 

to the verbs of the third branch the terminations of 
the verb ouvrir, as 



Ouvr-'w 



j ouvr-e 
tu ouvr-es 
il ouvr-e 



nous ouvr-ons 
vous ouvr-ez 
ils ouvr-ent 



f°ff r -e 
tu offr-es 
il offr-e 



Ojfr-ir 

nous offr-ons 
vous offr-ez 
ils offr- en t 



and to the verbs of the fourth branch, the termina- 
tions of the verb ienh\ as 



T-enir 



je t-iens 
tu t-iens 
il £-ient 



nous tenons 
vous t-enez 
ils tf-iennent 



F-enir 



je ?;-iens 
tu v-iens 
il v-ieut 



nous i;-enons 
vous i;-enez 
Us r-iennent 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 209 

and so on through all the tenses. He must observe 
also, that tenir and all its derivatives are conjugated 
with avoir, in their compound tenses, whereas venir 
and its derivatives, excepting contrevenir and sub- 
venir, are conjugated with etre in the same tenses. 

INDICATIVE 

PRESENT. 

I feel all the unpleasantness of your situation. Whence comest 
desagrement m. — - d'oii venir 

thou ? Does he (go out) so soon ? Do we not (set off) for the 
sortir tot 2* partir* 

country? Do you not (tell a lie)? They (act contrary) to your 
campagne f. 2* mentir contrevenir 

orders. 
ordre m. 

IMPERFECT. 

I served my friends warmly. Didst f not thou amuse him 
servir^ avec chaleur entretenir 

with fair promises ? He complied at last with the wishes of his 
de beau f. pi. consentir enfin a desir m. pi. 

family. Did we sleep then ? Did you not belie your cha- 
famille f. doi*mir\\ alors 2* dementir ca- 

racter ? Did they often (come out) from the bottom of their 
ractire souvent sortir contr. fond m. 

mountains ? 

PRETERIT. 

I foresaw that terrible catastrophe. Thou didst not (come 

pressentir — 2 — f . 1 re- 
again) as thou hadst promised. Did he not (go back) imme- 

venir 2 promis 3 le 1 2* repartir sur le 

diately? Did we go out of the city before him? Did you not 

champ ville f. avant lul 

agree to that condition? They served their country with 

consentir — f. pays 
courage. 



* The figures 2, 3, 4, with an asterisk, refer to the branch which the verb 
belongs to. 

f See p. 363 where to place the regimen of verbs. 
% See its formation upon sentir, p. 204 
II Bormir is also irregular, see p. 287 



210 OF REGULAR VERBS. 



Shall I not obtain this of you ? Wilt thou go out this evening ? 
obtenir cela de 

He will not sleep quietly. Shall we comply with that ridi- 
tranquillement a 

culous bargain? (To a certainty) with time and 

marche m. a coup sur avec de art. pr.-art. 

patience, you will compass your end. What ! they will 

— f. venir a bout de dessein quoi \ 

not serve their friends., 
serviront 

CONDITIONAL. 

I would open the door and the window. Wouldst thou not 
porte f. fenetre f. 

intervene in that affair? Would he (set off again) so soon? We 

intervenir 2* repartir 

should not easily (get out) of this scrape. Could you 

aisement sortir mauvais pas m. 

smell the perfume of this garden? Could they foresee their 
sentir parfum m. pressintir 

misfortune ? 
malheur 

IMPERATIVE. 
Support thy character in good and bad fortune. 

soutenir art. pr.-art. mauvais — f. 

Let him come and receive the reward of his labours. Let 

* recevoir recompense f. travail m. pi. 

us gain glory by our perseverance. Do not main- 

obtenir de art. par — f. sow- 

tain so absurd an opinion. Let them maintain their authority. 
tenir — del 1 maintenir autorite f. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

That I may prevent such dangerous enemies. I will not 

prevenir de art. si 2 1 veux 

that thou go out this morning. That he may not obtain his 
sub.-l matin m. parvenir a 

ends. That we may become just, honest, and virtuous. That 
fin f. pi. devenir 

you may return covered with laurels. That they may agree 

revenir convert de laurier m. pi. convenir 

about the conditions, 
de • — 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 211 

IMPERFECT. 

That I might not (bring about) my designs. That thou 
venir a bout de projet m. pL 
mightst (tell a lie) on set purpose. That he might not 

2* mentir de premedite 2 dessein 1 
bear his disgrace with firmness. That we might belong to 
soutenir — f. fermete appartenir 

that great king. That you might renounce your errors and 

revenh de pr.-pron. 

prejudices. That they might hold the most absurd ideas. 
tenir a 2 1 



THIRD CONJUGATION 
in oir, 
RECEV- OIR, TO RECEIVE. 



INFINITIVE. 

Recev-oiv to receive 

PARTICIPLES 

PRESENT. PAST. 

recev-ant receiving | rec-u m. -ue f. received 

Observation. 

The learner is to give to the verbs of this conju- 
gation the terminations of the verb recevoir, as 



JRecev- 


oir 


, to receive 


Dev- 


oir, to owe 


Sing. 




Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


je reg-ois 




nous rec-evons 


je d-ois 


nous c?-evons 


tu rec-ois 




vous rec-evez 


tu d-ois 


vous J-evez 


il rec-oit 




Us rec-oivent 


il d-oit 


ils (f-oivent 



and so on through all the tenses. 



212 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



INDICATIVE. 



present, I receive 

je rec-ois* nous rec-evons 

tu rec-ois vous rec-evez 

il rec-oit Us rec -oi vent 

imperfect, I did receive. 

je recev- ais nous recev-icms 

tu recev-ais vous recev-iez 

il recev-ait Us recev-aient 



preterit, I received 

je rec-us nous reg-umes 

tu rec-us vous rec-utes 

il rcc-ut Us rec -urent 

future, I shall receive 

je recev-rai 
tu recev-ras 
il recev- ra 



nous recev -vows 
vous recev -rez 
Us recev-ront 



EXERCISE. 

INDICATIVE, 

PRESENT. 

I perceive the summit of the Alps covered with perpetual 

apercevoir sommet Alpes f. pi. 3 couvrir de eternel 2 

snow. Dost thou receive his advice with respect and 

neige £ pi. 1 avis m. pi. avec — 

gratitude ? Does he understand well that rule so simple ? We do 
concevoir bien regie f. — 

owe a large sum. Do you not perceive the snare ? Ought 
devoir gros somme f. apercevoir piege m. devoir 4 des 

firm and courageous men thus to yield to circumstances ? 

2 3 1 ainsi 6 ceder 5 art. 

IMPERFECT. 

Did I not receive him kindly ? Did he see the castle 

2 le I avec amitie apercevoir chateau 

from such a distance ? We did not receive our income. Did you 

si * loin percevoir revenu m. pi. 

not receive great civilities ? Did they conceive all the 

recevoir de honnetete f. pi. concevoir 

blackness of their crimes ? 
noirceur f. — 

PRETERIT. 

I perceived him walking in the moonshine. Did he 

2 le I qui se promenait a clair de la lune m. 

conceive a great esteem for that honest man ? Did we not im- 
concevoir estime f. de bien 2 1 



In verbs ending in cevoir, the c takes a cedilla (c) when followed by o or u. 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



213 



conditional, I should receive 



je recev-r&is 
tu recev-r&is 
il recev-i&it 



nous recev-nons 
vous recev-riez 
ils recev- raient 



imperative, Receive (thou) 

rec-ois rec-evons 

qu'il rec-oive rec-evez 

quHls rec-oivent 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



present, that I may receive 



que je ?*ec-oive 
que tu rec- oives 
qiCil rec-oive 



que nous recev- 

ions 
que vous recev-iez 
quHls rec-oivent 



imperfect, that I might receive 

queje rec- usse que nous rec- 
que tu rt e-usses ussions 
quHl reg-ut que vous rec- 

ussiez 
qu'ils rec-ussetit 



mediately perceive the snare ? You did not receive his letters in 

httre f. pi. a 

time. Did they conceive the depth of his plan ? 
profondeur f. — m. 

FUTURE. 

Shall I receive visits to-day? He will not discover 

de art. visite f. pi. aujourdliui apercevoir 

the spire of his village. We shall conceive_ well-founded 

docker m. — m. de art. fonde2 

hopes. Will you never conceive so luminous a principle ? 

esperance f. pi. 1 2 1 

Shall men always owe their misfortunes to their faults ? 
art. m. pi. faute f. pi. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Should I receive the offers of my enemy? Should he thus (give 

devoir s'aban- 

himselfup)to despair? Should we conceive such abstract 

donner art. desespoir m. 1 de si abstrait 2 

ideas ? You would easily perceive so gross a trick. Would they 

1 f. grossier ruse f. 

not receive their friend with tenderness ? 
tendresse f. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Conceive the horror of his situation. Let him receive this 

horreur f, — f. 

mark of confidence with gratitude. Let us never owe (any thing) 
marque f. confiance 2 1 rien 



214 OF REGULAR VERBS, 

Receive no more of his letters. Let them at last perceive tneir 

2 I 3 de en fin 2 I 

errors. 
— eurs 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

That I may receive consolations. That he may not con 

de art. — 

ceive a thought so well developed. That we may always receive 
pensee f. deueloppe de 

false news. That you may not perceive the dangers of 

nouvelle f. pi. art. 

books contrary to good manners. That they may not collect 
contre * art. moeurs f. pi. percevoir 

unjust taxes. 
de injuste 2 f. pi. 1 

IMPERFECT. 

That I might conceive such a project. That he might perceive 

pro jet 

the secret designs of the enemy's general. That we might not 

cache 2 dessein 1 2*1 

receive every body with civility. That you might not conceive 

honnetete 
the depth of this book. That they might not perceive the masts 
f. mdtm. pi. 

of the ship. 

vaisseau m. 



FOURTH CONJUGATION 
IN RE. 

Observation. 

This conjugation has five branches : the first is 
in aire, the second in aitre, the third in ire, the 
fourth in aindre, eindre, and vindre, and the fifth in 
dre, ere. pre, ire, and vre. 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



215 



PARADIGMS, OR MODELS. 







INFINITIVE. 






PRESENT, 




BRANCH I. 


BRANCH II. 


BRANCH III. j BRANCH IV. 


BRANCH V. 


To please 
P/aire 


To appear 
Parai-tve 


To reduce 

Redu-ixe 


To pity 
Plain-dre 


To render 
Ren-dre 




PARTICIPLES. 






PRESENT. 




pleasing 
plai-saut 


appearing | reducing pitying 
paraissant j redui-sant j p/ai-gnant | 

PAST. 


rendering 
ren-dant 


pleased 
p7-u m. -ue f j 


appeared reduced pitied 
par-M -ue f. j red-nit -uite j plain-t -te | 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 


rendered 
rerc-du -ue f 


I please 




appear reduce pity 


render 


je plai-s 
tu plai-s 
il plai-t 




par-ais 
par-ais 
par-ait 


redui-s 
redui-s 
redui-t 


plains 
plains 
plain-t 


ren-ds 
mi-ds 
ren-d 


nous plai-sons 




par-aissons 


redui-sons 


plai-gnons 


?*en-dons 


vous plai-sez 
Us plaisent 




par-aissez 
par- aissent 


reduisez 
redui-sent 


plai-gnez 
plai-gnent 


rew-dez 
ren-dent 



Observation. 
The learner is to give to the verbs of every branch 
the terminations of their models, as 

to destroy 

reci-uire detr-nive 

je red-nis je detr-uis 

exercises on the First, Second, and Third Branches. 
INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

know his fiery and impetuous temper. Does not 



to conceal 
pZ-aire f-aire 
je pl-ais je t-a\s 



to know 
par- aitre cora;z-aitre 
je par-ais je conn-ais 



2*connaitre bouillant 2 



caractere m. 1 



216 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 





IMPERFECT. 






BRANCH I. 


BRANCH II. 


BRANCH in. 


BRANCH IV. 


BRANCH v. 


I did please 


appear 


reduce 


pity ^ 


render 


je plai-sais 


par-aissais 


redui-suis 


plai-gna\s 


ren-d'd\s 


tu plai-sais 


par-aiss'dis 


redui-sais 


plai-gn dis 


ren-ddis 


il plai- sait 


par-aissait 


redui-s&it 


plai-gwdit 


re«-dait 


nous plai-s\or\s 


/wr-aissions 


redui-sxous 


plai-gn\ons 


rew-dions 


vons plai-siez 


joar-aissiez 


redui~s)ez 


plai-guiez 


rew-diez 


ih plai-sdient 


par-aiss&ient 


redui-sdient 


plai-gnment 


: mj-daient 




TRETERIT. 




I pleased 


appeared 


reduced 


pitied 


rendered 


je pl-us 


pa?-- us 


redui-sis 


plai-gnis 


?*ew-dis 


tu pl-us 


paj'-us 


redui-sis 


piai-gms 


ren-dis 


il pl-ut 


par-ut 


reduusit 


plai-gmt 


ren-dit 


nous pl-umes 


par-umes 


redui-simes 


p/ai-gmmes 


?*ew-dimes 


vous pl-utes 


par-utes 


redui-sites 


plai-gnites 


re??-dites 


Us pl-urent 


par-ureut 


redui-sirent 


plai-gmrent 


mi-dirent 



virtue please every body? Are we not instructing youth? You 
a * 3* instruire art. f. 

seduce your hearers by your modest exterior. Do they 

S'seduire auditeur m. pi. — 2 exierieur m. I 

acknowledge their errors ? 
2* reconnaitre 

IMPERFECT. 

I did not displease by my conduct. Did he at last acknowledge 

f. reconnaiire 

his injustice? We did not appear convinced. Did you know 
f. paraitre convaincu pi. 

that charming landscape ? They led people into error, 

m. 3* induire art. en 



Did I not soon know his intentions ? Did he not (do away) 

— 3* ditruire 

his prepossessions ? We led our friend back to his country - 

prevention f. pi. reconduire * de 

house. Did you conduct your children from truth to 

campagne 2 f . 1 conduire de en 

truth? Did those frightful spectres appear again? 

effrayant 2 m. pi. apparaitrc de nouveau 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



217 





.FUTURE. 






BRANCH I. 


BRANCH II. 


BRANCH III. 


BRANCH IV- 


BRANCH v. 


I shall please 


appear 


reduce 


pity ^ 


render 


je phi-rai 


par-aitrai 


ridui- rai 


plain-drai 


rew-drai 


tu plai-ras 


par-aitras 


redui-vas 


ph.in-dras 


ren-d ras 


U plai-ra. 


par-altra. 


redui-ra, 


plain-dra. 


ren-dra. 


nous plcti-rons 


par-attrons 


redui-rons 


plain-drons 


ren-drcms 


vous plai-rez 


par-aitrez 


redui-rez 


plain-drez 


ren-drez 


Us plai-ront 


par-altront 


redui-r ont 


plain-dvout 


rerc-dront 




CONDITIONAL. 




I should please 


appear 


reduce 


pity 


render 


je plai-r&is 


par-aitrais 


redui -rais 


plain-drais 


ren- drais 


tu plai-rsds 


par-aitrais 


redui-ra,is 


plain- drais 


ren- drais 


il plat-rait 


par-aitva.it 


redui-Tait 


plain-drait 


rera-drait 


nous plai-rions 


par-aitnons 


redui-rions 


plain -drions 


ren- drions 


vous plai-riez 


p<2?*-aitriez 


redui-nez 


plain-dviez 


raz-driez 


Us plai-Tdient 


joaraitraient^ 


redui-raient 


p/aiwdraient 


rerc-draient 



FUTURE. 

I shall draw an opposite consequence. Will not a thought; 
deduire contraire 2 — If. f. 

true, grand, and well expressed, please at all times ? We shall 

exprime dans art. m. pi. 

(make our appearance) on this great theatre next month. 

paraitre sur — m. art. prochain2moism. 1 

Will you know your things again ? Will they always reduce 

2* reconnaitre effet m. pi. * 
our duties to beneficence? 

devoir m. pi. art. bienfaisance f. 

CONDITIONAL. 

I should (carry on) the undertaking with success. Could sin- 
conduire entreprise f. 

cerity displease the man (of sense)? Should we build our house 

== a sense 3* construire 

upon that plan ? Would you reduce your child to despair ? 

— m. art. m. 

Would they introduce an unknown person into the world ?, 
introduire inconnu m. * 

IMPERATIVE. 
Know the powers of thy mind, before thou write. Let him 
force f. avant de * ecrire 



218 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



IMPERATIVE. 



BRANCH I. 


BRANCH II. 


BRANCH III. 


BRANCH IV. 


BRANCH V. 


Please (thou) 


appear 


reduce 


pity 


render 


2nd p. sin. plai-s 


i par-a\s 


redui-s 


plains 


ren-ds 


quHl plai-se 


par-aisse 


redui-se 


plai-gne 


ren-de 


plai-sons 


par-aissons 


redui- sons 


plai- gnons 


ren-dons 


plai-sez 


par-aissez 


redui- sez 


plai-gnez 


ren-dez 


qu'ils plai-sent 


par-aissent 


redui-sent 


plai-gnent 


ren-dent 




SUBJUNCTIVE. 






PRESENT. 




That I may please 


appear 


reduce 


pity 


render 


queje plai-se 


joar-aisse 


redui-se 


plai-gne 


ren-de 


que tu plai-ses 


par-aisses 


redui-ses 


plai-gnes 


ren-des 


qu'il plai-se 


par -aisse 


redui-se 


plai-gne 


ren-de 


que nous plai-sions 


potr-aissions 


redui-sions 


plai-gn\ons 


ren-dions 


que vous plai-siez 


par-aissiez 


redui-siez 


plai-gniez 


ren-diez 


qu'ils plai-sent 


joar-aissent 


redui-sent 


plai-gnent 


ren-dent 




imperfect, That I might 




please 


appear 


reduce 


pity 


render 


queje pl-usse 


par-usse 


redui- sisse 


plai-gnisse 


ren-d is se 


que tu pl-usses 


par-usses 


redui-sisses 


plai-gnisses 


mi-disses 


quilpl-ut 


par-iit 


redui-sit 


plai-gmt 


ren-dit 


que nous p/-ussions 


par-ussions 


reduisissions 


plai-gnis- 


m/-dissions 


que vous pl-ussiez 


par-ussiez 


redui-sissiez 


sions 


mz-dissiez 


quHls pl-ussent 


joar-ussent 


redui-sissent 


p/azgnissiez 


mi-dissent 






p/mgnissent 





not lead the ignorant into error. Let us please by our gentie- 

induire — m. pi. en dou- 

ness and civility. Sweet illusions, vain phantoms, 

ceur f. pron. honnetete f. doux — f. pi. fantome m. pi. 

vanish. Let them appear. 
disparaitre 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

That I may please every body, is impossible. That he may 

a ce — 

lead his pupil step by step to a perfect knowledge of the art 

conduire eleve pas a connaissance f. — 

of speaking and writing. That we may entice by an enchanting 

parler pr. seduire enchanteur 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 219 

style. That you may not appear timid, That they may not increase 
— m. — de accroitre* 

our sufferings. 
peine 

IMPERFECT. 

That I might acknowledge the truth. That he might not displease 

connaitre 

by his haughtiness. That we might conduct him to court. 

hauteur f. h asp. conduire art. cour f. 

That you might know your real friends. That they might not 

vrai f. 

appear so scornful and vain. 

dedaigneux si — f. pi. 

Observation. 

The learner is to give to the verbs in eindre and 
oindre the terminations of the verb plaindre ; as 



/>/-aindre 
je pl-zins 
nous pl-Eiignoiis 



jj-eindre, to paint 
je p-eins 
nous p-eignons 



j- oindre, to join 
jej-oms 
nous j-oignons 



and to the verbs in cre 3 pre, tre, and v re, the ter-. 
minations of the verb rendre, as 



ren-dre 
je ren-ds 
nous ren-dons 



repon-dve, to answer 
je repon- ds 
nous repon-aons 



exercises on the Fourth and Fifth Branches. 
INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

I wait his return with impatience. Does he fear 
5* attendre retour m. — 4* craindre art. 

death ? We do not force you to adopt this opinion. Do 

f. 4* contraindre 2 1 de adopter — f. 

you not confound these notions one with another ? Do 

5* confondre — f • art. art. 

they not waste their time about trifles ? 

5* perdre a de ait. bagatelle f. pi. 

* This verb is conjugated like par-aitie, the only difference is the letter o 
instead of the letter a in the penultima. 



220 OF REGULAR VERBS. 

IMPERFECT. 

I was pitying those sad victims of the revolution. This 

plaindre trhte victime f. pi. — f. 

dog did not bite. We did join our sighs and 
chien m. 5* mordre joindre soupir m. pi. pron. 

tears. Were you painting an historical subject? Did 

larme f. pi. peindre d'histoire 2 tableau m. 1 

they throw the graces of expression into their speeches ? 
repandre* art. discours 

PRETERIT, 

I aimed at an honest end. Did he extinguish the fire of a 
5* tendre a 2 but m. 1 4* eteindre 

disordered imagination ? Did we sell our incense to the pride of 
deregle 2 — f. 5* vendre encens 

a blockhead ? Did you feign to think as a madman ? Did they 

sot 4*feindre de en * fou 

not (come down) at the first summons ? 
5* descendre a sommation f. 

FUTURE. 

Shall I hear the music of the new opera? Will he 

5* entendre musique f. — m. 

constrain the officers to join their respective corps? Shall 
4* contraindre officier joindre respectif2. — 1 

we describe all the horror of this terrible night ? Will you 

4* depeindre f. — 2 nuit f. 1 

not new compose a work so full of charming ideas? They will 

5* refondre plein 

assiduously correspond with their friends. 
assidument 5* correspondre 

CONDITIONAL. 
Should I, by these means, gain the desired end? 

mot/en m. 4* atteindre a desire 2 1 

Would he wait with (so much) patience ? Should we sell 

5* attendre tant de — 5* vendre 

our liberty? Would you oblige young people to live 

— te 4* astreindre de art. gens pi. vivre 

as you do ? They should dread the public's censure. 

comme * 4* craindre 4 5 de 3 art. 1 — f . 2 



* The final andre, though differing from -endre, in its etymology, has the same 
nasal sound. 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 221 

IMPERATIVE. 

Expect not happiness from external objects ; it is 

5* attendre art. bonheur m. art. exterieur 2 objet 1 il 

in thyself. Let not thy melancholy paint (every thing) in 
en tci que 14 2 mdancolie 3 f. 5 tout 

black. Let us not descend to useless particulars. 

noir 5* descendre dans de art. 2 detail m. pi. 1 

Ye sovereigns ! make the people happy ! Let them acknowledge 
* souverain pi. rendre repondre 

(so much) goodness. 
a de bonte f. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

That 1 may fear that cloud of enemies. That he may not 

nuee f. 

answer such absurd criticism. That we may confound the 

repondre a un si critique f. 5* confondre 

arts with the sciences. That you may have the same end in view. 

— — * 2 tendre a 1 

That they may not (be subj ect) to any body. 
dependre de personne 

IMPERFECT. 

That I might not melt into tears. That he might (draw a 
5*fondre en 
picture of) distressed virtue. That we might affect 

peindre art. malheureux 2 1 4*feindre de 

such low sentiments. That you might hear their justi- 
art. si has 2 — 1 5* entendre 

fi cation. That they might (wait for) the opinion of sensible 

— o* attendre — art. sense 

persons. 

f.pi. 



222 



OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 



CONJUGATION 

OF THE 

REFLECTIVE VERBS. 



PARADIGM. 

Reflective verbs are conjugated after the model 
which we give here, and according to the forms 
of the conjugation to which they belong. The 
compound tenses are conjugated with etre, and the 
participle is put according to the gender and number, 
either in the masculine or feminine, in the singular 
or plural. 

INFINITIVE. 
Se Repentir To Repent 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT. i PAST. 

se repentant repenting j repenti m. -ie f. repented 
INDICATIVE, 





SB 


1PLE TENSES. 




PRESENT. 






1" repent 


.ie 


me 


repens 


tu 


te 


repens 


il 


se 


repent 


elle 


se 


repent 


nous 


nous 


repentons 


vous 


vous 


repentez 


ils 


se 


repentent 


elles 


se 


repentent 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



PRESENT. 

/ have repented 



tu 
il 

elle 

nous 

vous 

ils 

elles 



l repenti m. 
V or 
\ repentze f. 



me suis 

f es 

s' est 

s' est 

nous sommes \ 

vous etes f repentis m 

se sont 

se sont 



Y or 
J repentzes f 



Observation. 

Here we should recollect that all reflective verbs 
are conjugated with two pronouns of the same 



OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 



223 





SIMPLE TENSES. 
IMPERFECT. 




COMPOUND TENSES. 




PLUPERFECT 




/ did repent 




/ had repented 


tu 


me repentais 
te repentais 


tu 


m' etais -\ 

,, s. • ) repenti m. 

t etais f r 


il 


se repentait 


il 

elle 


s' etait C j.* r 
* etait Jrepentwf. 


nous 


nous repentions 


nous 


nous etions ^ repe ntis m. 


vous 


vous repentiez 


vous 


vous etiez I or 


ils 


se repentaient 


ils 
elles 


S' etaient J re penties f. 

s' etaient J 



person ; thatje is always followed by me ; tu by te; 
iL elle, ils, elles, by se ; nous by nous ; and vous by 
vous. In interrogative sentences, the pronoun in 
subject is the only one that is put after the verb; 
and in those that are simply negative, ne is put 
between the two pronouns. 

EXERCISE. 
PRESENT. 

I walk every night in the moon-shine. Do we not 

Se promener tout art. soir m. pi. au clair de la lune 
nurse ourselves too much? 
s'ecouter * 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

Did not Lucretia (put herself to death) ? Ladies, have you been 
Lucrece se donner la mort Mesdames 
walking long ? 
long-temps 

IMPERFECT. 

I incessantly encumbered myself with (other people's) 
sans cesse se tourmenter pour autrui 2 art. 

affairs ? Did you not laugh at us ? 
f. pi. 1 se moquer de 

PLUPERFECT. 

We had condemned ourselves. They (had missed their way) by 
se condamner s'egarer 

their own fault. 



224 



OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 





SIMPLE TENSES. 




COMPOUND TENSES. 




PRETERIT DEFINITE. 


PRETEkIT ANTERIOR. 




/ repented. 




I had repented. 


tu 
il 


me repentis 
te repentis 
se repentit 


tu 
il 
elle 




nous 
vous 
ils 


nous repentimes 
vous repentites 
se repentirent 


nous 
vous 
ils 
elles 


nous fumes \ repentis nu 
vous futes f or 
se furent Uepenties f 
se furent J 




FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 




FUTURE ANTERIOR. 




I shall repent 




I shall have repented* 


tu 
il 


me repentirai 
te repentiras 
se repentira 


tu 
il 
elle 


me serai ^ t[ m# 
te seras I r 

se sera l repentie f. 
se sera J r 


nous 
vous 
ils 


nous repentirons 
vous repentirez 
se repentiront 


nous 
vous 
ils 

elles 


nous serons ^ rep entism. 
vous serez f r 0J . 

se seront f rep erit^ f. 
se seront J 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

He did not trine with the public (with impunity). Did they 
se moquer de impunement 

not applaud themselves for their own follies ? 
s'applaudir de sottise f. pi. 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

When she had remembered her fault, she was quite 

5* se souvenir de faute f. ind.-3 tout 

ashamed. When you had amused yourself enough you 

honteux f. h asp. s'amuser assez 

went away. 
se retirer ind.-3 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

Will not these flowers fade ? I shall not walk this evening 
fieur f. sefietrir 1 soir 

in the park. 



OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 



225 



CONDITIONAL. 

SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 





PRESENT. 






PRETERIT. 




I should repent 




I should have repented 


je 

tu 
il 


me repentirais 
te repentirais 
se repentirait 




je me 
tu te 
il se 
elle se 


serais ^ rep enti m. 
serais I or 
serait {repent^ f. 
serait / 


nous 


nous repentirions 




nous nous 


senons ^ repentis m 


vous 

ils 


vous repentiriez 
se repentiraient 




vous vous 
ils se 
elles se 


seriez f or 
seraient i repenties f. 
serai ent J 




1MPER 


ATIVE. 








Repent 


{thou) 






repens-foi 
qu'il se repente 


repentons-wows 
repentez-i>OMS 
qu'ils se repentent 




SUBJU> 


[CTIVE. 






PRESENT. 






PRETERIT. 




That I may repent 




Thatl 


may have repented 


que* 

tu 
il 


me repente 
te repentes 
se repente 




que 
je me 
tu te 
il se 
elle se 


sois -\ 

sois \ re P entl m> 

soit J re P entte f - 


nous 
vous 
ils 


nous repentions 
vous repentiez 
se repentent 




nous nous 
vous vous 
ils se 
elles se 


soyons *\ 

soyez /wpentism. 

soient f or . c 
soient J'epenbMf. 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

Shall I have misunderstood? Will you have prided yourselves 
se meprendre^ 1* s'enorgueillir 

on this trifling advantage ? 
de faible avant — m. 

CONDITIONAL. 



Would you (ruin your character) by such an action ? Would they 
se deshonorer tel — f. 

* Que is to be repeated before each person in the subjunctive mood. 
f Irregular, like prendre, see p. 275. 

L 2 



226 OF REFLECTIVE VERES. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



IMPERFECT. 

That I might repent 

que 

je me repentisse 

tu te repentisses 

il se repentit 

nous nous repentissions 
vous vous repentissiez 
ils se repentissent 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



PLUPERFECT. 

That I might have repented 
que 

je me fusse ~\ 

tu te fusses /repenti m 

il se fut ( Cr c 

elles se fut J re P en ^ f- 

nous nous fussions"\ 

vous vous fussiez \ re P ends m 

ils se fussent f °' ■ r 

elles se fussent ) re P ente f 



(take advantage) of their birth and riches in doing 

se prevaloir* naissance f. pron. pour inf.-l. 

violence to our inclinations ? 
sentiment m. pi. 

PAST. 

Should I not have remembered my promise? Could his hap- 
4* se souvenir de promesse f . 
piness have so soon vanished ? 
tot 1* s'evanouir 

IMPERATIVE. 

man ! remember that thou art mortal. Let us give to ourselves 

se rendre * 
an exact account of our actions. Rest yourselves under the 
2 compte m. 1 — se reposer a 

shade of that oak. 
ombre f. chene m. 

[But if the imperative sentence be with a negative, the pronoun is 
placed before the verb, yet after the negative ne, and toi is changed 
intofe.] 

Be thou never blind to thy own defects. Let us not deceive 
* s'aveugler sur defaut 3* se seduire 

ourselves. Let us not pride ourselves on gifts of fortune. 

de art. — 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

1 wish them to accustom themselves early to 
desirer que ils * s'habituer de bonne heure 
work. 

art. 

* Like valoir, irregular, see p. 263. 



OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 



227 



PRETERIT. 

That you may have been so grossly mistaken. 

grossierement se meprendre irr. 

IMPERFECT. 

That he might walk oftener, 

plus souvent 

PLUPERFECT. 

That thou mightst have started (at the sight of) so wretched 
s'effrayer de voir malheureux 2 

a man. 
1 



As there is some difficulty in conjugating prono- 
minal verbs, some few are here selected, and will 
prove advantageous to practice. 



FIRST CONJUGATION in -er. 



s'alarmer 
se flatter 

s'ingerer 

s'occuper 

se hater 
se depecher 
se promener 
se eoucher 
" alter se 
se lever 
sarroger 

se procurer 

se visiter 

s'enrhumer 

s'enrouer 

s'ennuyer* 

s'orienter 

s'attribuer 

tfentf aider 



to be alarmed 

{to flatter one's- 
self 
{to intermeddle 
with 
{to busy one's- 
self about 
to make haste 
to be quick at 
to take a walk 
to lie down 
to go to bed " 
to get up 
to arrogate 

{to provide 
one's-self 
{to visit each 
other 
to catch cold 
to grow hoarse 
to be weary 
fto consider 
\ where one is 
to assume 

{to help one an- 
other 

1 See p. 248, conjugation of irregular verbs. 



s'habituer 
s'evertuer 
s'imaginer 

se tourmenier 
sHmpatienter 

s y epargner 

se reposer 
se mefier 
se defier 
seformaliser 
se reconcilier 
se confesser 
s'avouer 
sHmmortaliser 

se dorloter 



se blesser 
se laver 
sliabiller 

s'emanciper 



to get used to 
to labour to 
to fancy 

{to torment 
one's-seif 
ito fret, to lose 
patience 
to spare one's- 
self 
to take rest 
to mistrust 
to distrust 
to take offence 
to be reconciled 
to confess 
to avow 
to immortalise 

{to make much 
of one's-self 
to bind one's-self 
to hurt one's-self 
to wash 
to dress 

{to take too 
much liberty 



228 



OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 



N. B.— The figures B 1, B 2, B 3, B 4, B 5, 

indicate the respective branch to which the verb 
is to be referred, and the asterisk refers to the 
conjugation of irregular verbs* 



SECOND CONJUGATION in -zr. 



B 1. s'assoupir 
B 2. se ressentir 
B 4. s'abstenir 

* se servir 
B 4. se souvenir 

* s'endormir 

* se reeueillir to meditate 
B 1. s'evanouir to faint away 



to grow sleepy 
to resent 
to abstain 
to make use of 
to remember 
to fail asleep 



B 1 . s'applaudir to applaud 

r> i -• fto secure to 

B 1. se nantir < , 1X . 

t one s-self 

* s'enquerir to inquire 

B 3. s'entr'ouvrir to open 

B 1. s'enorgueillir to grow proud 

B 1. se rejouir to rejoiee 



THIRD CONJUGATION in -oir. 



s'apercevoir to perceive 

fto make appli 

*sepourvoir j ca{ion ^ 

._ ^ 7 • fto avail one's- 

* se prevaloir 1 -,? 

* s'asseoir to sit down 

* se voir to see each other 



* s'emouvoir 

* s'entrevoir 



'to move, to 
L affect 
f to meet one 
[ another 



^ fto be pleased 

se savoir are •< ., r , ir 

y \ with one s-self 



FOURTH CONJUGATION in -re. 



„ K ,„. , fto defend one's- 
B o. se aefendre < j* 

B 1. se fazre to be silent 

B 2. se repaitre to feed upon 

T3 j . fto conduct 

B 3. se conduire < n , ip 

^ ones-selr 

B 5. se morfondre to grow cold 

t^ c , fto lose one's- 

B 5. se perdre < ir 

B 4. se con- \ f to constrain 
traindre J \ one's-self 



B 5. se rendre 

B 5. se rendre 
compte 



to surrender 
to give an ac- 
count to one's- 
self 
se prescrire to prescribe 
B 2. se mecon- \ f to forget one's- 
raai^re j \ self 

to sav to one's- 
self 



* se dire 



f 



■}{' 



OF PRONOMINAL VERBS. 



229 



EXAMPLE OF A PRONOMINAL VERB USED NEGA- 
TIVELY. 
INFINITIVE. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



PRESENT. 

Not to remember 
Nepas se souvenir 



Ne 



COMPOUND TENSER 



PAST. 

Not to have remembered 
Nepas s' etre souvenu 
PARTICIPLES. 
Not remembering Not having remembered 

v souvenant pas I Ne s' etant pas souvenu 

INDICATIVE. 



i" do not remember 

je ne me souviens 
tu ne te souviens 
il ne se souvient 



nous ne nous souvenons 
vous ne vous souvenez 



pas 
pas 
pas 

pas 

pas 



ils ne se souviennent pas 

IMPERFECT. 

/ did not remember 

je ne me souvenais pas 
tu ne te souvenais pas 
etc. etc. 



I have not remembered 

j e ne me suis pas~\ sou- 

tu ne V es pas I venu 

il ne s' est pas f or 

elle ne s' est pas J ue f. 
nous ne nous sommes^an sou- 

vous ne vous etes pas t venua 

ils ne se sont pas t or 

elles ne se sont pas) ues f. 



tu 



pasJ 

PLUPERFECT. 

/ had not remembered 

ne m* etais pas \ sou- 
pas j venu 



net 



etais 
etc. etc. 



je 



PRETERIT. 

/ remembered not 
je ne me souvins pas 

FUTURE. 

/ shall or will not remember 
je ne me souviendrai pas 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRETERIT. 

i" should not remember 
je ne me souviendrais pas 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

/ had not remembered 
ne me fus pas souvenu 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

I shall or will not have remembered 
je ne me serai pas souvenu 



PAST. 

/ should not have remembered 
je ne me serais pas souvenu 



230 



OF PRONOMINAL VERBS. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 



PRESENT. 

That I may not remember 
que je ne me souvienne pas 

IMPERFECT. 

That I might not remember. 
que je ne me souvenisse pas 



PAST. 

That I should liot have remembered 
que je we me sois pas souvenu 

PLUPERFECT. 

That I might not have remembered 
que je ne me fusse pas souvenu 



IMPERATIVE. 

ne te souviens pas remember (thou) not 



qu'il ne se souvienne pas 
ne nous souvenons pas 

ne vous souvenez pas 

qu'ils ne se souviennent pas 



let him not remember 
let us not remember 
remember ye not 
let them not remember 



We say in French se ressouvenir de quelque chose 
and se rappeler quelque chose, to remember some- 
thing; se ressouvenir is always followed by the 
preposition de, but not se rappeler. 



OF A PRONOMINAL VERB USED INTERROGATIVELY. 
INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

Do I remember 

me souviens-je 
te souviens-tu 
se souvient-il 



nous souvenons-nous 
vous souvenez-vous 
se souviennent-ils 

IMPERFECT. 

Was I remembering 



me 
te 



souvenais-j e 
souvenais-tu 





PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 




Have I remembered 


me 
t 

s' 


suis-j e 
es-tu 
est-il 
est-elle 


souvenu 
souvenu 
souvenu 
souvenwe 



nous sommes-nous souvenus 
vous etes-vous souvenus 
se sont-ils souvenus 

se sont-elles souvenues 

PLUPERFECT. 

Mad I remembered 



m etais-je 
t' etais-tu 



souvenu 
souvenu 



OF PRONOMINAL VERBS. 



231 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



COMPOUND TENSES. 





PRETERIT DEFINITE. 




PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 




Did I remember 




Had I remembered 


me 


souvins-je 


me 


fus-je souvenu 


te 


souvins-tu 


te 


fus-tu souvenu 




FUTURE. 




FUTURE ANTERIOR. 




Shall I remember 




Shall I have remembered 


me 


souviendrai-je 


me 


serai- je souvenu 


te 


souviendras-tu 

CONDI1 


te 


seras-tu souvenu 
JAL. 




PRESENT. 




PAST. 




Should I remember 




Should I have remembered 


me 


souviendrais-je 


me 


serais-je souvenu 


te 


souviendrais-tu 


te 


serais-tu souvenu 



N. B. — The subjunctive mood is not used inter- 
rogatively. 



OF A PRONOMINAL VERB CONJUGATED INTERROGA- 
TIVELY AND NEGATIVELY. 

>S"endormir to fall asleep 
INDICATIVE. 





PRESENT. 




PRETERIT. 




Do I not fall asleep 


Have I not fallen asleep 


ne m" 


endors-je pas? 


ne me 


suis-je pas \ 


ne V 


endors-tu pas ? 


ne V 


es-tu pas 


ne s' 


endort-il pas ? 


ne s* 


est-il pas 






ne s* 


est-elle pas 


ne nous 


endormons-nous pas? 


ne nous 


sommes-nous pas 


ne vous 


endormez-vous pas ? 


ne vous 


etes-vous pas 


ne s' 


endorment-ils pas? 


ne se 


sont-ils pas 






ne se 


sont-elles pas j 



IMPERFECT. 

Was I not falling asleep 
ne m! endormais-je pas 



PLUPERFECT. 

Had I not fallen asleep 
ne ?tt'etais-j e pas endormi 



And so on through all the verb, except in the 
subjunctive mood. 



232 



OF PRONOMINAL VERBS. 



PRONOUNS. 



I have it 


/ AacZ ?zo£ ^em 


Had I some 


je Z'ai 
tu /'as 
il /'a 


je ne Z^5 avais /)as 
tu ne les avais pas 
etc. etc. 


en eus-je 
en eus-tu 

etc. etc. 


nous Z'avons 






vous Z'avez 
ils ^ont 






IMPERATIVE {Affirmative.) 


Have it m. Have it f. 


aie le aie la 
qu'il Z'ait qu'elle fait 


ayons le ayons Za 
ayez le ayez Zcr 
qu'ils Z'aient qu'elles Z'aient 


IMPERATIVE {Negative.) 


Do not have it 


Do not have them 


Do not have any 


ne Z'aie pas 

<* u '}\? r \ne Z'ait pas 
qu'elle J r 


ne les aie pas 

qu'il ne les ait pas 

etc. etc. 


n'en aie pas 

qu'il n'en ait pas 

etc. etc. 


ne Z'ayons pas 
ne Z'ayez pas 







Avoir WITH THE PRONOUN t/. 

N'avez-vous pasfroid aux mains ? Oui, fy aifroid 
Are not your hands cold ? Yes, they are 



Affirmative 

j' t/ ai froid 
tu y as froid 
il y a froid 



Interrogative 

y ai-je froid 
y as-tu froid 
y a-t-il froid 



Neg. and Inter. 

n y y ai-je pas froid 
rty as-tu pas froid 
n'z/ a-t-il pas froid 



J^^re WITH THE PRONOUN le. 

I am so lam not so 

je le suis je ne le suis pas 

tu Z' es tu ne Z' es pas 

il I est il we V est pas 

nous Ze sommes nous ne le sommes pas 

vous V etes vous ne V etes pas 

ils le sont ils ne Ze sont pas 



OF PRONOMINAL VERBS, 



233 



Am I so 

le suis-je 

V es-tu 

/' est-il 

le sommes-nous 

/' etes-vous 

le sont-ils 



Am I not sc 

ne le suis-je pas 

ne l' es-tu pas 

ne V est-il pas 

ne le sommes-nous pas 
ne V etes-vous pas 
ne le sont-ils pas 



WITH THE PRONOUN en. 



I am sorry for it 

j' en suis fache 
tu en es fache 
il en est fache 

Interrogative 

en suis-je fache 
en es-tu fache 
en est-il fache 



Negative 

j e n'en suis pas fache 
tu n'en es pas fache 
il n'en est pas fache 

Neg. and Inteiv 

n'en suis-j e pas fache 
nen es-tu pas fache 
n'en est-il pas fache 



WITH THE PRONOUN y. 



Affirmative, I am there 

y y suis 
tu y es 
il y est 

Interrogative, Am I there 

y suis-je 
y es-tu 
y est-il 



Negative, lam not there 

je n'y suis pas 
tu n'y es pas 
il n'y est pas 

Neg. & Int. Am I not there 

n'y suis-j e pas 
ny es-tu pas 
n'y est-il pas 



IMPERATIVE. 



Affirmative, Be there 
sois-y 
qu'il 3/ soit 
soyons-y 
soyez-y 
qu'ils y soient 



Negative, Do not be there 

n'y sois pas 
qu'il n'y soit pas 
n'y soyons pas 
n'y soyez pas 
qu'ils n'y soient pas 



234 uF PASSIVE VERBS. 

CONJUGATION 

OF THE 

PASSIVE VERBS. 



There is only one conjugation for all passive 
verbs. To conjugate them, we have only to add to 
the tenses of the verb etre the participle past of the 
verb active, in the masculine or feminine, in the 
singular or plural, according to the gender or 
number of the substantive or pronoun which the 
participle is related to, as 

Singular. 
je sums aime or aimee I am loved 

tu etais estime or estimee thou wast esteemed 

Ufut cheri he was beloved 

e lie fat chirie she was beloved 

vous auriez ttt apercu or apercue you would have been perceived 

Plural. 
nous avons ete louts or louees we have been praised 

vous eutes ete rechercMs or re- you had been sought after 

cherchies 
Us seraient craints et respectes they would be feared and re- 

spected 

and so on through all the tenses of the verb etre. 



The above Sentences with a Negative and the 
Particle en. 

Singular. 
je n'en suis pas aime I am not loved by him or them 

tu w'en etais pas estime thou wast not esteemed by him 

il n'enfut pas cheri he was not cherished by her 

vous n'en auriez pas ete apercu you would not have been per- 
ceived by them 
Plural. 
nous w'en avons pas ete louts we have not been praised for it 

vous n'en eutes pas ete recherchis you had not been sought after 
Us w'en seraient ni craints ni re- they would be neither feared nor 
species •fc-s^sp.ted by them 



OF PASSIVE VERBS. 285 



INTERROGATIVELY AND NEGATIVELY. 

Singular. 
n'en suis-je pas aime ? am I not loved by him, her, &c. ? 

tt'en etais-tu pas estimt ? wast thou not esteemed for it ? 

n'en fut-elle pas cherie ? was she not beloved by him ? 

w'en auriez-vous pas He apercu ?■ would you not have been per- 
ceived by him ? 

Plural. 
ra'en avons-nous pas He hues ? have we not been praised by them? 

n'eneutes-vous pas eterecherchesf had you not been sought after? 
n'en seraient-ils pas craints etre- would they not be feared and 
spectes 9 respected by them ? 

EXERCISE. 

1. I am loved by every body. My mother was much revered, 

de tout le monde 
and my father feared and respected. That king was beloved by 

Ce ind.-2 

his people. I hope we shall be praised ; but you 

esperer que ] en 2 3 1 pron. 

will be blamed for it. I wish the doors were opened, 

3 4 2 desirer cond. - 1 que sub. -2 past par. f. 

and the windows shut. Thou hadst been apprised of it 

fermer inf.~3 f. 1 ind.-3 informer inf .-3 2 
when he had been bitten by the mad dog. I suspect the 

eire ind. -3 mordre inf.-3 2 1 m. douter que 

artifice will have been discovered. Suppose the lights 

m. subj.-3 decouvrir inf -3 Suppose que 4 

had been put out ? 

on I 2 avoir sub.-l * 3 eteindre inf. -3 

2. That young lady is so mild, so polite, and so kind, that 

demoiselle doux bon que, 

she is beloved by every body. He performed with (so much) 

f. de jouer ind -3 tant de 

skill that he was universally applauded. He is known by 

que ind-3 inf. -3 ne connaitre 

nobody. How many countries, unknown to the ancients, have 

que de pays des * 

been discovered by modern navigators ? 
inf-3 2 1 



236 



OF NEUTER VERBS. 



CONJUGATION 



NEUTER VERBS. 



Neuter verbs are those which cannot have a 
direct regimen ; they are conjugated with the 
auxiliary verb avoir in their compound tenses, 
excepting the following which take etre; those 
marked with an asterisk take either, according to 



their signification. 



aller 


to go 


venir 


to come 


accourvr 


to run to 


revenir 


to come back 


arriver 


to arrive 


devenir 


to become 


jchoir 


to fall 


redevenir 


to become again 


dechoir* 


to decay- 


avenir 


to happen 


echoir* 


to become due 


intervenir 


to intervene 


monter* 


to go up 


par venir 


to attain 


descendre* 


to go down 


provenir 


to come from 


remonter* 


to go up again 


survenir 


to befal 


redescendre 


to go down again 


disconvenir 


to deny, disown 


entrer* 


to enter 


naitre 


to be born 


rentrer* 


to come in again 


mourir 


to die 


retourner 


to return 


deceder* 


to die 


tomber 


to fall 


eclore* 


fto be hatched, 
\ to blow 


retomber 


to fall again 


partir 


to set out 


accoucher* 


fto be brought 
\ to bed 


repartir 


to set out again 




rester 


to stay- 


demeurer* 


to stay, remain 


echapper* 


to escape 


apparaitre* 


to appear 


expirer* 


to expire 


perir* 


to perish 


passer* 


to pass away 


resulter* 


to result 


sortir* 


to go out 


convenir* 


to agree, to suit 


ressortir 


to go out again 


contrevenir* 


to contravene 


aborder* 


to land, &c. 







Observation. 
The participles of the neuter verbs which take 

t Used only in the infinitive mood, and seldom in the past participle. 



OF NEUTER VERBS. 



237 



etre for auxiliary, must agree in gender and num- 
ber with their subject, as 

I have fallen 
when thou badst come 
he had arrived before me 
she had already arrived 
my sister had set off before him 
we shall have returned 
)u when you shall have come down 

f they would have set off again 



je suis tombe or tombee 

quand tu fus venu or venue 

il etait arrive avant moi 

elle etait deja arrivee 

ma sceur etait partie avant lui 

nous serons revenue or revenues 

quand vous serez descendus 

descendues 
Us seraient repartis 
dies seraient reparties 
vos sceurs etaient sorties, sont-elles 

a present r entrees ? 
cela lui est echu en partage 
cette maison wi'a convenu et je suis 

convenu du prix 
il n'en est pas disconvenu 
cette chose m'est echappee de la 

memoire, de la main 
la treve est expiree 
les delais sont expires 
elle a expire dans les bras de sa 

mere 
qu'di-Uil resulte de la? qu'en est-il 

resulte ? 
tous ceux qui etaient sur ce vais- 

seau out peri, ou sont peris 
a.-t-on descendu le vin a la cave ? 

le barometre a descendu de quatre 

degres pendant la journee 
les actions ont monte beaucoup 
je w'ai pas remonte ma montre 
il a monte quatre fois a sa chambre 

pendant la journee 
il est monte dans sa chambre, et ily 

est reste 

EXERCISE. 

They came to see us with the greatest haste. When 

ind.-4 * voir empressement Quand 

did they arrive? That estate fell to his 

esUce que arriver ind.-4 terre f. lui est echu en * 

lot. He fell from his horse, but happily received 

partage tomber ind.-4 * il — ind.-4 

only a slight contusion on the knee. 
ne que leger — f. a genou m. 



your sisters went out, are they 
now come baek ? 

that fell to his lot 

that house suited me and I have 
agreed about the price 

he did not deny it 

that thing escaped from my me- 
mory, dropped from my hand 

the truce has expired 

the delays have expired 

she expired in the arms of her 
mother 

what has been the result or con- 
sequence of it ? 

all those that were on board of 
that ship have perished 

have they carried down the wine 
into the cellar 

the barometer fell four degrees 
during the day 

the stocks rose very much 

I have not wound up my watch 

he went up to his room four 
times in the course of the day 

he is gone up to his room, and 
has remained there 



238 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

CONJ (JGATION 

OF THE 

IMPERSONAL VERB 
FALLOIR, TO BE NECESSARY. 



avoir fallu 



INFINITIVE. 

Falloir to be necessary 
PARTICIPLES. 

PAST. 

to have been, &c. \ fallu, ay ant fallu having been, &c. 
INDICATIVE. 

SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 



PRESENT. 

it must or it is necessary 
ilfaut 

IMPERFECT. 

it was necessary 
ilfallait 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

it was necessary 
ilfallut 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

it will be necessary 
ilfaudra 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

it would be necessary 
ilfaudrait 



PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

it has been necessary 
il a fallu 

PLUPERFECT. 

it bad been necessary 
il avait fallu 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

it had been necessary 
il eat fallu 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



it will have been necessary 
il aura fallu 



it would have been necessary 
il aurait fallu 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



that it may be necessary 
quHl faille 



IMPERFECT. 



that it might be necessary 
qxCilfallut 



PRETERIT. 



that it may have been necessary 
qu'il ait fallu 



PLUPERFECT. 



that it might have been necessary 
qu'il eut fallu 



OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



239 



Observation. 

II denotes an impersonal verb as in fallow, used 
only in the third person singular, when a noun or 
substantive cannot properly supply its place ; for 
instance, in speaking of a child, we say, il joue, he 
plays ; the verb here il joue, is not impersonal 
because in the room of the word il, we may put 
V enfant, the child, and say V enfant joue, the child 
plays ; but such substitution cannot take place 
when the verb is truly impersonal. We here sub- 
join a list of those which are frequently used in 
common conversation. 

ilpleut 

il neige 

il grele 

il tonne 

il eclaire 
*il gele 
*il degele 

il arrive 

il sied 

il bruine 

il importe 

il semble 

il parent 

il suffit que 

il convient 

il s'ensuit que 

il est a-propos 

ilfaut 

ily a 

Observation. 
The above impersonal verbs are all conjugated in 
the third person singular like falloir, but by re- 
ferring to the conjugation which they belong to ; 
for instance, those in er to the first, in ir to the 
second, in oir to the third, and in re to the fourth. 





Infinitive 


it rains fro 


m pleuvoir 


it snows 


neiger 


it hails 


greler 


it thunders 


tonner 


it lightens 


eclairer 


it freezes 


geler 


it thaws 


degeler 


it happens 


arriver 


it is becoming 


seoir (obsolete) 


it drizzles 


bruiner 


it matters 


importer 


it seems 


sembler 


it appears 


paraitre 


it suffices 


sujfire 


it becomes 


convenir 


it follows 


s'ensuivre 


it is proper 


etre 


it is necessary 


falloir 


there is or are 


avoir 



* These verbs having appeler for their paradigm, ought to double the letter I 
when followed by an e mute, as il gelle, U degette. — Noel and Chapsah 



240 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

In the following exercises upon the verbs, the 
tenses will no longer be marked separately; the 
learner must refer to the explanatory table of 
abbreviations, page 2/9. 

EXERCISE. 

Does it rain this morning? Did it hail last 

pleuvoir matin m. greler ind. -4 art. dernier 2 

night ? It does not snow. I thought it had thundered. 

f. I veiger croyais que tonner ind. -6 

Does it not lighten ? The wind has thawed the river. Is 

eclairer degeler inf.-3 riviere f. fait- 

it cold or warm ? It is horribly cold. Do you think it 
il froid chaud faire horriblement croire que 

freezes? Must he fall? That is 

geler falloir ind. -7 que succomber subj. -1 decela4 il y avoir 1 
ten years ago. It is a remarkable thing. It was a terrible hur- 
2 an pi. 3 * ce ce ind.-2 — 2 ou- 

ricane. It is ten o'clock. There are few real talents. It (was 
ragan 1 il heure pi. il y a peu de — il ne 

not my friend's fault) that it was not so. It will freeze 
tenir a mon ami la chose subj .-2 ne ainsi 

long. I do not think it ; it seems, on the contrary, that it 
long-temps le crois a contraire 

thaws. It happened as they feared. It is fit to act so. 
arriver ind. -3 ce que on ind. -2 convenir de 

It (was of great importance) to succeed. Would it be proper to 

importer beaucoup m. 2 de etre apropos de 

write to your friends ? It appears that he has not attended to 

s'occuper de 
that business. Perhaps it (would be) better to (give up) the 

vaudrait * abandonner 

undertaking. It was sufficient to know his opinion. There 
entreprise suffire ind.-2 

was yesterday a council of war. 
ind-3 hier conseil 



OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 241 



VARIOUS WAYS OF CONSTRUING FciUoir. 

Ilfaut que it is requisite or necessary that 
Ilmefaut I must or I want 

EXAMPLES. 

ilfaut que je vende ma maison, it is necessary that I may sell my 

or house 

il mefaut vendre ma maison I must sell my house 

ilmefaut une grammaire I want a grammar 

N.B. — II faut que with the subjunctive mood, is 
a better construction than il me faut followed by 
the infinitive. I want may be also translated by 
j'ai besoin de, which expression conveys the same 
meaning as il mefaut followed by a substantive. 

EXERCISE. 

You must speak to him about that affair. It was necessary for 
subj.-l de f. ind.-2 que * 

him to consent to that bargain. We were obliged to (set out) 
il * subj.-2 marc he m. ind.-3 partir subj. -2 

immediately. Children should learn every day something by 

sur le champ art. cond.-l sub.-2 

heart. Shall I suffer patiently such an insult? Re must have 

ind.-7 subj.-l 2 1 cond.-2 * 

been a blockhead not to understand such easy rules, 

subj. -2 sot 2 pour 1 comprendre inf. -1 des si 2 3 regie f. 1 

(How much) do you want? He does what is requisite. Do that 

combien fait faites 

as it (shoidd be). What must he have for his trouble ? You are 

ind.-l que 2 lui 1 * peine f. 

the man I want. Do not give me any more bread, I have 

que * de en 

already more than I want. I need not ask you whether you will 
deja ne vCen * inf.-l si 

come. I do not think that it is necessary to be a conjuror to 

crois il subj.-l * sorcier pour 

guess his motives. I could not suspect that I ought to ask 
deviner motif pouvais soupconner subj. -2 * inf.-] 

pardon for a fault I have not committed. 

— de faute f. que commise 

M 



242 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

CONJUGATION 

OF THE 

IMPERSONAL VERB, Y Avoir, There to be 





INFINITIVE. 


Present 


y avoir 


there to be 


Past 


y avoir eu 


there to have been 




PARTICIPLES. 


Present 


y ayant 


there being 


Past 


y ayant eu 


there having been 




INDICATIVE. 


Present 


ily a 


there is or there are 


Preterit Indef. 


ily a eu 


there has been, or there have 
been 


Imperfect 


il y avait 


there was or there were 


Pluperfect 


il y avait eu 


there had been 


Preterit def. 


il y exit 


there was or there were 


Preterit ant. 


il y eut eu 


there had been 


Future Absolute 


ily aura 


there will be 


Future Anterior 


il y aura eu 


there will have been 




CONDITIONAL. 


Present 


ily aurait 


there would be 


Past 


ily aurait eu 


there would have been 




SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present 


qu'ily ait 


that there may be 


Preterit 


qu'ii y ait eu 


that there may have been 


Imperfect 


quHl y eut 


that there might be 


Pluperfect 


quHl y eut eu 


that there might have been 



N.B. — This verb in English may be used in the 
plural ; in French it is always in the singular. 

exercise. 
There must be a great difference of age between those two 
il doit — f. 

persons. There being (so many) vicious people in this world, 
tant de — 2 gens m. pi. 1 

is it astonishing that there are so many persons who become the 
etonnant subj.-l devenir 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 243 

victims of the corruption of the age ? It is a thousand 

perversite f. siecle m. * mille a parier 

to one that he will not succeed. There would be more 

contre reussir d e 

happiness if (every one) knew how to moderate his desires. I 

bonheur chacun savait * * moderer desir 

did not think that there could be (any thing) to blame in his 

croyais subj.-2 rien reprendre 

conduct. There would not be so many duels, did people reflect 

conduite f. — si Von reflechir 

that one of the first obligations of a Christian is to forgive 
ind. -2 f. — f. Chretien depardonner 

injuries. Could there be a king more happy than this, who 
art. pourrait-il celui 

has always been the father of his subjects ? 

sujet 



OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 

The only irregular verbs of the first conjugation 
are aller and envoy er. 

ALLEK TO GO. 



INFINITIVE. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



PRESENT. 

Togo 
AUer 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



To have gone 
avoir ete* etre alle m. allee f. 



PARTICIPLES. 



going gone 

aUant eti alle m. allee f. 



244 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



INDICATIVE. 


SIMPLE TENSES. 


COMPOUND TENSES. 


PRESENT. 


PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 


I go 
je vais 
tu vas 
il va 

?wus allons 
vous allez 
Us vont 


I have gone 
je suis alle 
tu es alle 
il est alle 
nous sommes aUes 
vous etes alles 
Us sont alles 


IMPERFECT. 


PLUPERFECT. 


I did go 
j'allais 


I had gone 
jHais alle 


PRETERIT. 


PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 


I went 
faUai OTJefus 


I had gone 
jefus alle 


FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 


FUTURE ANTERIOR. 


I will go 


I should have gone 


jHrai 


je serai alle 


CONDI! 


10NAL. 


PRESENT. 


PAST. 


I should go 


I should have gone 


firais 


je serais alle 


1MPER 


ATIVE. 


Singular 
va go (thou) 
quHl aille let him go 


Plural 
allons let us go 
allez go ye 
quHls aillent let them go 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



PRESENT. 

That I may go 

que j y aille 
que tu allies 
quHl aille 
que nous aUions 
que vous alliez 
quHls aillent 



PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

I may have gone 

queje sois alle 
que tu sois alle 
quHl soit alle 
que nous soyons aUes 
que vous soyez alles 
quHl soient alles 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



245 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



IMPERFECT. 

That I might go 
que fallasse 
que tu allasses 
qu'il alldt 

que nous allassions 
que vous allassiez 
qu'ils allassent 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



PLUPERFECT. 

That I might have gone 

que je. fosse alle 

que tu fosses alle 

quilfot alle 

que nousfossions alles 

que vous fossiez alles 

quHlsfussent alles 



Observation. 

We sometimes use, through custom, the preterit 

definite of the indicative and the imperfect of the 

subjunctive of the verb etre, instead of the same 

tenses of the verb aller, asjefus, tufus, etc., que 

je fusse, que tu fusses, etc. 



S'EN ALLER, TO GO AWAY. 
INFINITIVE. 

SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 



PRESENT. 

s'en aller to go {away) 



s'en allant going (away) < 



PAST 

s'en etre alle to have gone (away) 

PARTICIPLES. 

en alle gone (away) 



s'en etant allee having gone away 
INDICATIVE. 



PRESENT. 



en) vais or vas 
en) vas 

en) va 



je (m 
tu (T 

elle J C * 
nous (nous en) allons 
vous (vous en) allez 
ils or\, , N 

elles/O "Ovont 



je (m' 
tu (i 
il or | ( 



s'~ 



} 



alle or 
allee 



en) suis 
en) es 

elle . e ") est 

nous (nous en) sommes "\ 

vous (vous en) etes (alles or 

ils or\., v f allees 

elles/O e ^ sont J 



246 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 





IMPERFECT. 






SIMPLE TENSES 


. 


COM] 

je (m' 


>OUND TENSES. 


je (m 1 en) allais 


ere) 6tais 


alle 




PRETERIT. 






je (m' en) allai 


1 je (•" 
FUTURE. 


ere) fus 


alle 


je (nC en) irai 


1 je O' 
CONDITIONAL. 


ere) serai 


alle 


je (m' en) irais 


1 je O' 
IMPERATIVE. 


en) serais 


alle 


AFFIRMATIVE 




NEGATIVE 




va (£' en) 
qu'il (V en) aille 
allons (nous en) 
allez (vows ere) 
qu'ils (s' ere) aillent 




ree (V en) va ^ 
qu'il we (V ere) aille / 

ree (nous en) allons ^pas 
ne (vous en) allez 4 
qu'ils ree (s' en) aillefrit } 




SUBJUNCTIVE. 






que 


PRESENT. 






je (m' en) aille 
tu (f en) ailles 

elleT }(*' cre ^ aille 


j je (nC 
|tu (f 
iil or ~) , , 
■ jelle }( s 


ere) sois 
ere) sois 

en) soit 


(alle or 
C allee 


nous (reores ere) allions 
vous (vous en) alliez 


|nous (nous en) soyons 
vous (vous en) soyez 


( allesor 


eUeT}^' en) aillent 


lils or\, , 
lelles J^ S 


ere) soient 


t allees 


que 


IMPERFECT. 






je (w*' ew) alias se 


1 je O' 


en) fusse 


alle 




EXERC 


HSE. 




- 



Will you go this evening into the country? Perhaps. I am 
soir a campagne f. 

going before to pay some visits, and if I be early 

auparavant * faire ind- 1 dehomieheure 2 

(at liberty) I shall certainly go home. Go thither with 

libre 1 - s'en alter chez-moi 

thy brother. Go and do that errand. Go thither and put 

* faire commission f. * meitre 

every thing in order. Let him go to church on holy- 

en art. eglise f. * art. jour pi. de 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 247 

days. By keeping those flowers too long in the same water they 

fete garder f. 

will stink. I shall send spring flowers to those ladies. 

de art. printanier 2 f.-pl. dame f.-pl. 

I would go to Rome, if I could. We would (send back) our 

pouvoir ind.-2 r envoy er 

horses. Let us not lightly judge of intentions. Did they 

leghement art. — 

not neglect their friends ? They threatened with their anger. He 
negliger menacer de colore f. 

spends his estate extravagantly. The bees were there 

employer bien en foV.es depenses abeille f. -pi. * y 

(sucking) the cups of the flowers. Why do they go away 
sucer ind.-2 calice pourquoi 

so soon ? My brother and sister went yesterday to Windsor 

pron. 
I shall not go (any more) a hunting. 
plus a * art. chasse f. 

Observation, 

Je fits, fai ete, j' avals ete, faurais ete, are not 
synonymes of fallal, je suis alle, fetals alle, je 
serais alle. The former serve to express the fact of 
having gone, and the latter the fact of being gone ; 
for instance, il est alle en Amerique, he is gone to 
America, means that the person who is gone is not 
yet returned ; but in the following sentence, il a 
ete en Amerique, he has been in America, conveys 
the idea of having returned from the place men- 
tioned. 

The imperative va takes an 5 by euphony when 
followed by y or by en, as vas-y, go thither ; vas en 
savolr des nouvelles, go to hear some tidings of it ; 
however, it takes no s when y is followed by a verb, 
as va y donner ordre, go and order that affair. — See 
p. 249. 

Puer, to stink, is defective ; it has no preterit of 
the indicative nor the imperfect of the subjunctive. 

The verbs in oyer, ayer, as we have already 



248 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



observed, have an irregularity only in the spelling, 

the y in some forms being changed into t, as 

Envoyer To send 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. Envoyer — Part. Pres. envoyant — Past envoye m. ee f. 

INDICATIVE. 





Singular. 






Plural. 




Pres, 


j'envoi -e 


es 


e 


envoy-ons 


yez 


envo-ieni 


Imp. 


yenvoy-ais 


ais 


ait 


envoy-ions 


iez 


aient 


Fret 


j'envoy-ai 


as 


a 


envoy-dmes 


dtes 


erent 


Put. 


yenver-rai 


ras 


ra 


envev-rons 


rez 


ront 


Con. 


j 'enver- rais 


rais 


rait 


envev-rions 


riez 


raient 


que 






SUBJUNCTIVE. 






Pres. 


j' envoi- e 


es 


e 


envoy -ions 


iez 


ient 


Imp. 


'y envoy -asse 


asses 


at 


envoy-ass ions assiez 


assent 



IMPERATIVE, 
envoi-c, qu'il envoi-e, envoy-ows, envoy-ez, qu'ils envo-ient 



Payer, To Pay. 

This verb and all those which in the present 
participle end in yant, as essay er 9 to try ; appnyer, 
to lean upon ; take also, like envoyer, the addi- 
tional i after the y in the first and second persons 
plural of the imperfect indicative and of the sub- 
junctive present; the y is altered into i in the 
tenses where y precedes a mute e. 

Inf. Payer — Part. pres. payant — Past, paye m. ee f. 

Ind. pres, Je paie, tu paies, it paie, nous payons, vous payez, ils 

paient 
Imp. Je payais, tu pavais, il payait, nous nay-io?is, vous pay-zee, 

ils ipay-aient 
Pret. Je payai, tu payas, il paya, nous payames, vous payates, 

ils pay erent 
I'iit. Je paz-erai, tu paz-eras, il pai-era, nous paz-erons, vous 

paz-erez, ils paz-eront 
Cond. Je paz-erais, tu pat-erais, il pa?'-erait, nous paz-eiions, 

vous paz-eriez, lis paz-eraient 
Imp. Paie, qifil paie payons, payez, qu'ils paient 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 249 

Sub, prcs. Que je paie, que tu paies, qu'il paie, que nous paj^-zons, 

que vous pay-iez, qu'ils pai-ent 
Imp. Que je payasse, que tu payasse, qu'il payat, que nous 

payassions, que vous payassiez, qu'ils payassent 

Observations. 

Ployer, to bend ; employer, to employ, are con- 
jugated like envoy er, except in the future and the 
conditional, where they follow the termination of 
payer, as fut. je ploierai, jemploierai, etc.; cond. 
je ploierais, f emploierais , etc. 

In reference to the observation on the verbs 
porter, apporter, and alter, followed by en or y in 
the imperative, see p. 247- 

For the verbs in ger, keeping the mute e before 
a or o, and those in cer taking the cedilla under c 
when followed by the above two vowels a or o, see 
p. 201. 



IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION 
IN IE. 

branch i. Finir. 

The learner must bear in mind that the charac- 
teristic or predominant letter of any verb is always 
that which begins the last syllable of the infinitive 
mood present, for instance, in sen-tir and ser-vir, t 
and v are the chief letters which prevail through 
the whole of these two verbs. This remark will be 
very useful in order to find out easily the very 
paradigm branch of any verb looked for. 

How to use the above method. 
I want to know w r hether sentir is the true para- 
digm branch for servir ; perceiving that v is the 
initial letter of the last syllable of the infinitive 

m 2 



250 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

servir, and t in sentir, I substitute v for the letter t, 
and add it to the radical ser in the present indi- 
cative whenever I see that t is added to the radical 
sen in seiitir. 

EXAMPLES. 

Paradigm, Sentir Servir, verb looked for 

INDICATIVE PRESENT. INDICATIVE PRESENT. 

je sen-s nous sen-tons je ser-s nous ser-vons 

tu sen-s vous sen-fez tu ser-s vous sev-vez 

il sen-t ils sen-tent il ser-£ ils ser-vent 

T being the characteristic letter V being the characteristic letter 

Were I not to know how to make any proper 
substitution in the letters of the termination, I 
would have said nous sen-tons, nous ser-tons, and so 
on, in order to conjugate servir exactly as its para- 
digm sentir. Many learners have made the same 
mistake for want of knowing the unchangeable root 
and the predominant or figurative letter of the 
variable termination of a verb. 

Benir, to bless, is regular through all its tenses, 
but has two participles past ; the one regular, as 
benie entre toutes les femmes, blessed among all 
women ; and the other irregular, when speaking of 
things consecrated by the prayers of the church. 
In that case, we say benit 9 benite ; as pain benit, 
hallowed bread ; eau benite, holy water. 

Fleurir, to blossom, used in its proper sense, is 
regular, but used figuratively, that is, meaning to 
flourish, to be in repute, honour, esteem 9 the parti- 
ciple present makes always florissant, and the third 
persons of the imperfect of the indicative often 
make florissait, Jlorissaient . 

, Hair, to hate. In the present of the indicative, 
the three persons singular, je hais, tu hais 9 il halt, 
and in the imperative the second person singular 
hais, are pronounced as a vowel, having the sound 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 251 

of e grave open, je hes, tu hes, il het, hes, whilst in 
all other forms, the letters ai form two syllables 
and have each their proper sound ; as nous ha-isso?is\ 
vous ha-issez, je ha-issais, je ha-'is, je ha-irai, ha-'i, 
etc. 

Gesir, to lie, is a defective verb, and has only 
preserved gisant, git, nous gisons, ils gisent, il 
gisait, used in familiar discourse or poetry, and 
particularly in monumental inscriptions : Ci-git 
Piron, qui lie fut jamais rien, pas meme acade- 
micien. 

EXERCISE ON B 1. 

May the name of that good king be blessed from generation to 
nom m. — en 

generation. These trees (were in blossom) twice every 

— ind.-2 deux fois tout art. 

year. The arts and sciences flourished at Athens in the time 
an pi. art. a Athines du 

of Pericles. Horace and Virgil (were in repute) under the reign 
— — Virgile ind-2 sous regne 

of Augustus. We discovered from the top of the mountain a vast 
Auguste decouvrir haut 

plain full of flowery meadows. The empire of the Baby- 
plaine f. rempli de fteurissant pre m. pi. Baby- 

lonians was long a flourishing one. We did not hate the 

ionien assez long -temps * * 

man, but his vices. Does she sincerely hate that vain pomp and 

pompe f. 
all the paraphernalia of grandeur? 
appareil art. — 



Branch ii. Sentir. 

Bouillir, to boil, is irregular only in the three 
persons singular of the present of the indicative,^ 
bous, tu boas, il bout, and in the second person sin- 
gular of the imperative, bans. It is regular else- 



252 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

where, nous bouillons, je bouillais, je bouillis, je 
bouillirai) que je bouille, que je bouillisse, bouillant, 
bouilli, ie. This verb, in its proper sense, is but 
seldom used, except in the third persons, either 
singular or plural, and in the infinitive preceded by 
the verb /aire. 

N. B. — Ebouillir, to boil down, and rebouillir, to 
boil again, are conjugated in the same manner. 
The first is commonly used only in compound tenses 
and the infinitive mood ; as cette sauce est trop 
ebouillie, this sauce is boiled down too much. 

Courir, To Run 
Inf. pres. Courir — Part, pres. courant — Past, couru 
Ind. pres, Iran, je cours, tu cours, il court, nous courons, vous 

courez, ils courent 
Imp. I did run, je courais, tu courais, etc. 

Pret. Iran or did run, je eou-rws, tu cou-rws, il con-rut, nous 

cow-rumes, vous cou-rutes, ils cou-rurent 
Put. I shall run, je couv-rai, tu cour-ras, il cour-ra, nous 

cour-j'ons, etc. 
Cond. I should run, je cour-rais, tu cour-rais, etc. 
Imp. Run (thou), cours, qu'il coure, courons, courez, qu'ils 

courent 
Sub. pres. That I may run, que je coure, que tu coures, qu'il coure, 

que nous courions, que vous couriez, qu'ils courent 
Imp. That I might run, que je cou-russe, tu cou-russes, ii 

co\i-rut, nous cou- r us sions, vous coxx-russiez, ils cou- 

russent 

In the same manner are conjugated accourir, to 
run to ; concourir, to concur ; discourir, to discourse ; 
encourir, to incur ; parcourir, to run over ; recoarir, 
to have recourse ; and secourir, to assist. The two 
rr of the future and the conditional are distinctly 
pronounced. 

Faillir, to fail. The authors of the dictionary of 
the French Academy give all the tenses of this 
verb, observing only that the greater part of them 
are obsolete. It is now only used in the present of 
the infinitive faillir, and participle past failli, in the 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 253 

preterit definite je faillis, ta faillis, il faillit, nous 
faillimes, vous faillites, Us faiilirent, and in the 
compound tenses, fai failli, feus failli, f avals 
failli, etc. 

Conjugate dtfaillir in the same manner. 

Fuir, To Fly, to Run Away, 

Part. pres. fuyant — Past, fui, ie 

Ind. pres. fills, fuis, fuit, fuyons, fuyez, fuient 

Imp. fuyais — Pret. fuis — Fut. fuirai — Cond. fuirais 

Imp. fuis, fuie, fuyons, fuyez, fuient 

Sub. pres. fuie, fuies, fuie, fuyions, fuyiez, fuient — Imp. fuisse 

Mourir To die 
Part. pres. mourant — Past, mort, morte 
Ind. pres. meurs, meurs, meurt, mourons, mourez, meurent 
Imp. mourais — Pret. mourus — Fut. je mourrai 

Imp. meurs, meure, mourons, mourez, meurent 

Cond. mourrais 

Sub. pres. meure, meures, meure, mourions, mouriez, meurent 
Imp. mourusse 

Observation. 

S'enfuir, to run away, is conjugated like fuir. 
Mourir takes the auxiliary etre. Se mourir sig- 
nifies to be at the point of death ; it is only used 
in the present and imperfect of the indicative. 

EXERCISE on B. 2. 

Take that water off the fire, it boils too fast. Do not 
r ether f. de dessus m. f. fort 

let the pot (boil away) so much. That sauce is boiled away 
laisser 2 — m. 4 3 tant 2 f. 

too much. Boil that meat again; it has not boiled long enough. 

* faites rebouillir viande f. f. * assez 

He runs faster than I. He ran about uselessly all the 

vite moi ind.-4 * inutilement 

morning. We ran at the voice of that honest man, and assisted 
matinee f. f. 2 

him. The moment he saw us in danger, he ran to us and delivered 
1 des que vit en * delivrer 

us. By so whimsical a conduct, should we not concur to our 
ind.-3 bizarre 



254 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

destruction ? He discoursed so long on the immortality of the 

perte f. sur immortalite 

soul, and the certainty of another life, that he did not leave 

certitude f. laisser ind-3. 

(any thing) unsaid. If we (were to act) thus, we should cer- 

rien en arriere agir ind. -2 ainsi 

tainly incur the displeasure of our parents. I would not have 

disgrace f . 
recourse to so base a method. Will men always run after 
has raoyen m. art. 

chimeras ? He (was like) to lose his life in that ren- 
chimfoe f. pi. Jaillir ind.-3 * perdre * art. ren- 

counter. He (was near) falling into the snare which was laid for 
contre f. faillir ind-4 dGnner in. on avait tendu 

him. She is dying. He died with grief. May he die in the peace 
lui se de 

of the Lord. Would he not avoid the flatterers if he knew 
Seigneur m. fair fiatteur m. pi. ind. *2 

all their falsehood ? 
faussete f. 

Acquerir, To Acquire 

Part. pres. acquerant — Past, acquis m. ise f. 

Ind. pres. acquiers, acquiers, acquiert, acquerons, acquerez, 

acquierent 
Imp. acquerais — Tret, acquis — Fut. acquerrai 

Cond. acquerrais 

Imp. acquiers, acquiere, acquerons, acquerez, acquierent 

Sub. pres. acquiere, acquieres, acquiere, acquerions, acqueriez, 

acquierent — Imp. acquisse 

S'enquerir, to enquire, an active verb in its origin, 
but now a reflect one, is conjugated in the same 
manner as acquerir. It is not obsolete as some 
foreign grammarians say, but used only in familiar 
conversation. It takes the auxiliary etre in com- 
pound tenses. 

Querir, to fetcb ? is used in this form only, and 

* Though se'nquerir is not ohsolete, however, it is better to use the pronominal 
verb s'informer, as je me suis informe de cet homme-la, I have inquired about that 
man. We say likewise prendre des informations sur le compte de quelqu'un, to 
inform of somebody. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 255 

after the verbs envoyer, venir, aller; as envoyez 
querir, send for; allez querir, go and fetch. This 
verb is confined to familiar conversation. 

Requerir, to request, to require, is used through 
all its tenses, but particularly in its compound 
tenses; it is conjugated as acquerir. 

Conquerir, to conquer, is conjugated in the same 
manner, but it is almost obsolete in all simple 
tenses except the preterit definite of the indicative, 
je co?iquis, tie co?iquis, il co?iquit 9 nous conquimes, 
etc., and the imperfect of the subjunctive, que je 
co?iquisse 9 que tu conquisses, qu'il conquit, que nous 
conquissions 9 etc. It is very much used in the 
compound tenses. 

Ou'ir, to hear, obsolete in several tenses. It is 
only used in the present of the infinitive ou'ir, and 
participle past ou'i ; in the preterit definite of the 
indicative, jou'is, tu ou'is 9 il ou'it 3 nous ouimes, etc. 
and the imperfect of the subjunctive, que fou'isse, 
que tu ou'isses, qiiil ou'it, que nous ou'issions, etc. 
Its principal use is in the compound tenses, but 
then it is generally accompanied by another 
verb : as je l 9 ai, or je V avals ou'i dire, I have, or I 
had heard it said. 

Vetir, To Clothe 

Part. pres. vetant — Past, vetu m. ue f. 

Ind. pres. vets*, vets*, vet*, vetons, vetez, vetent 

Imp. vetais — Pret. vetis— i<W. vetirai — Cond. vetirais 

Imp. vets*, vete*; vetons*, vetez*, vetent* 

Sub. pres. vete, vetes, vete, vetions, etc. — Imp. vetisse 

Observations. 

This verb is oftener used as a reflective verb, se 
vetir. It may, according to the French Academy, 
be used through all its tenses, but seldom in the 
forms marked with an asterisk # . 

Conjugate in the same manner revetir, to invest, 



256 of irregltlar verbs. 

which is used through all its tenses, and devetir, to 
divest, which is principally used as a reflective verb, 
and in some forms only. 

Sortir, to go out ; ressortir, to go out again, and 
repartir, to reply or to set off again, are conjugated 
likesentir; but sortir, to obtain, to have, (a law- 
term) ; ressortir, to resort, and repartir, to share, 
are conjugated like finir. Sortir in the latter sense 
is not used in all its tenses. 

exercise on Acquerir, S'enquerir, etc. 

Every day he acquired celebrity by 

art. jour m. pi. pr. art. = pr. art. 

works done to fix the attention of an enlightened public. 

ouvragem.ipl. fait pour — 2 1 

That I would acquire riches at the expense of my honesty ! 

subj.-2 pr. art. depens m. pi. pro bite f. 

He had acquired by his merit a great influence on the opinion of his 

f. 
contemporaries. I have enquired about that man every where, 

contemporain Id 

and have not been able (to hear any thing of him). Send for 

je rt pu en avoir des nouvelles querir or chercher 

the physician and follow exactly his advice. Who has re- 

medecin suivez qui est-ce qui 3 

quested it of you? He dressed himself in haste and went 
— or iprier 4 en 2 * 1 se vetir a art. hate 

out immediately. I wish she would dress the children 

voudrais que vetir sub. -2 

with more care. If his fortune permitted him, he would 

de petmettait 3 le 1 hi 2 

clothe all the poor of his parish. Two servants clothed him 

paroisse f. domestique revetir 2 1 

with his ducal mantle. He only passed for a traveller, but 
de 2 manteau m. 1 ne ind.-2 que 

lately he has taken the character of an envoy. I have 
depuis peu revetir* un * envoy e 



* We say also in that sense porter or prendre le titre instead of revetir le carac- 
tere de which is equally good grammar. 



OF IRREGULAR VEBRS. 257 

heard that important news. Sesostris, king of Egypt, cob- 
ouir dire* 2 nouvelle f. 1 

quered a great part of Asia. The formidable empire which 

Alexander conquered did not last longer than his life, 

ind. -6 durer ind.-3 plus long-temps 



Branch hi. Ouvrir. 

Cueillir, To Gather. 
Part. pres. Cueillant — Past, cueilli m. ie f. 
Ind. pres. cueille, cueilles, cueille, cueillons, cueillez, cueillent 
Imp. cueillais — Pret. cueillis — Fut. cueillerai 

Cond, cueillerais 

Imp. cueille, cueille, cueillons, cueillez, cueillent 

Sub J. pres. cueille — Imp. cueillisse 

Conjugate in the same manner accueillir, to 
make welcome, and recueillir, to collect. 

Saillir, to project, is commonly used in the two 
participles, saillant and sailli, nevertheless, it is 
sometimes used in the following forms of the third 
person, il saille, il saillait, saillera, saillerait, quit 
saille, quil saillit : but saillir, to gush out, does not 
belong to this branch ; it is a regular verb, conju- 
gated like Jinir, je saillis, tu saillis, Us saillissent, 
etc. Its principal use is in the third persons. 

Assaillir, To Assault 
Part. pres. Assaillant — Past, assailli m. ie f. 

Ind. pres. assaille — Imp. assaillais — Pret. assaillis — Fat. assaillirai 
Cond. assaillirais — Imp. assaille, assaille, assaillons, etc. 
Sub. pres> assaille — Imp. assaillisse 

Tressaillir, to start, is conjugated like assaillir , 
except in the future and the conditional, where it 
makes je tressaillerai, je tressaillerais, etc. Je 
tressaillirai is a fault, contrary to the present 

* Apprendre\\QXQ is preferable to ouir dire ; j'aiappris cetle nouvelle important e, 
I have heard, etc. 



258 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

practice ; this verb, like ciieillir, is irregular in the 
future and conditional. 

exercise on Branch 3. 
I will gather with pleasure some of these flowers and 

* pr. pron. 

fruits, since you wish to have some. Do not gather these 

puisque etre bien aise en 

peaches, before they are ripe. That is a country where they 

f. pi. av ant que ne sub.-l mar Ce pays oil on 

neither reap corn, nor (gather) grapes. We shall gather 

ne recueillir ni bled ni * vin recueillir 

in ancient history important and valuable facts. He received 

2 1 de art. — 2 precieux 3 fait 1 accueillir 2 

us in the most polite manner. Poverty, misery, 

1 de 2 maniere f. 1 art. f. art. f. art. 

sickness, persecution, in a word, all the misfortunes in the 

maladief. art. — f. en malheur m. pi. de 

world (have fallen upon) him. If you will give six inches to 

accueillir* ind.-l powcem.pl. 

that cornice, it will project too much. That balcony projected 

corniche f. f. * balcon m. ind.-2 

too much ; it darkened the dining-room, When Moses struck 
* obscurcir ind.-2 quand Mo'ise frapper 

the rock there gushed out of it a spring of (fresh 
ind. -3 rocher m. il jaillir ind.-3 2 en 1 source f. 

running) water. The blood gushed from his vein with impetu- 
vif'2 f. 1 ind.-2 veine f. = 

osity. We shall assault the enemy tomorrow in their entrenchments. 

pi, demain retranchement 

Were we not overtaken by a horrible storm ? At every word 
ind. -3 assailli tempete f. a chaque que 

they said to him concerning his son, the good (old man) leaped for 
on 2*1 de vieillard ind. -2 de 

joy. Shall you not shudder with fear? 
joie tressaillir peur 



IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 

Avoir, to have, of which we have given the 

* Here arriver is to be preferred to accueillir, as lui sont arrives, have falleu 
upon him. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 259 

conjugation, page 169, r avoir, to have again, and 
se ravoir, to recover, are only used in the present 
infinitive. 

Choir, to fall, defective, and hardly ever used but 
in this form and the participle past, chu. 

De choir, To Decay, 
PAKT.past. Dechu m. ue f. — No participle present, 
Ind. pres. dechois, dechois, dechoit, dechoyons, etc. 
Imp. None — Pret. dechus — Fut. decherrai — Cond. decherrais 

Imp. dechois, dechoie, dechoyons, dechoyez, dechoient 

Sub. pres. dechoie — Imp, dechusse 

Echoir, to fall, has only the third person of the' 
present of the indicative now in use, il echoit, or 
echet ; no imperfect. *Fechus, fecherrai, fecherrais ; 
no imperative, no present of the subjunctive; que 
jechusse; infinitive, echoir, pres. part, echeant; 
past part, echu m. ue f. 

These three verbs, choir, dechoir, and echoir, are 
conjugated with etre or avoir, in their compound 
tenses. 

Falloir, must, impersonal, of which we have 
given the conjugation p. 288, 

exercise on Choir j Bechoir, ete. 

Take care of falling. How has he fallen into poverty? 

Prendre garde inf.-l Comment en pauvrete 

Since the publication of his last work, he is much (fallen off) 

depuis dernier dechoir* 

in the esteem of the public. If he do not alter his conduct, he 

changer de * 

will fall off every day in his reputation and credit. 

dechoir ovperdre de jour en jour de — f. pr. art. — 

He has dipped in the lottery, and he hopes that a good prize 

mis a loterie f. * art. lot ra. 

will fall (to his share). That bill of exchange has expired. The 

echoir lui lettre f. change 

first term expires at Midsummer. You have drawn on me 

terme m. a la Saint Jean. tirer sur moi 

a bill of exchange ; when is it payable ? I did not believe that I 

ind. -7 echoir inf. -3 croyais il 

* Or perd beaucoup dans — tomber en discredit dans. 



260 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

must so soon have taken that journey. He must have 

subj.-2 /aire voyage m. ind -4 que 

sunk under the efforts of (so many) enemies. 

succomber subj. -2 tant de 

Mouvoir, To Move, 
Part. pres. mouvant — Past, mu m. ue f. 
Ind. pres. meus, meus, meut, mouvons, mouvez, meuvent 
Imp. mouvais — Pret. mus — Put. mouvrai — Cond. mouvrais 

Imp. meus, meuve, mouvons, mouvez, meuvent 

Sub. pres. meuve — Imp. musse 

N.B.— Conjugate in the same manner, emouvoir, 
to stir up, to move, and promouvoir, to promote. 

Pleuvoir, to rain, impersonal. II pleut, il 
pleuvait, il plut, il pleuvra, il pleuvrait, qu'il 
pleuve, qu'il plut. 

exercise on Mouvoir. 

The spring which moves the whole machine is very ingenious, 
ressort m. 2 tout 1 — f. = 

though very simple. It was passion which moved him to that 
quoique — Ce art. — f. ind. -4 

action. Can you doubt that the soul, though it is spiritual, 

— f. pouvez f. * * ne 

moves the body at pleasure ? That is a man whom nothing 
subj.-l a sa volontS ce ne 2 rien 1 

moves. We had scarcely lost sight of land, when 

imouvoir a peine perdu vue f . 3 2 art. terre f. 1 que 

there arose a violent tempest. We were moved with 

il s'emouvoir ind. -3 grande tempete f. emus de 

fear and pity. When the famous d'Aguesseau was promoted 
crainte f. pr, pitie f. quand celebre — 

to the dignity of chancellor, all France showed the 

chancelier art. — en temoigner ind.-3 

greatest joy. That bishop well deserved, by his talents and by his 

f. eveque ind. -2 — 

virtues, that the king should promote him to the dignity of primate, 
subj. -2 == f. primat 

The people think that it rains frogs and 

sing, croit de art. grenouille f. pi. de art. 

insects at certain seasons. It will not rain to-day, but I 
hisecte m. pi-, en temps, pi. aujourd'hui 

(am fearful) of its raining to-morrow. 
crains que * il ne subj.-l 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 261 

Pouvoir, To be able. 
Part. pres. pouvant — past, pu 

Ind pres, puis or peux, peux, peut, pouvous, pouvez, peuvent 
Imp. pouvais— Pret. pus — Fut. pourrai — Cond. pourrais 

Imp. Wanting. — Sub. pres. puisse — Imp. pusse 

S avoir, To Know. 
Part. pres. sachant — past, su m. ue f. 
Ind. pres. sais or sai, sais, sait, savons, savez, savent 
Imp. savais — Pret. sus — Fut. saurai — Cond. saurais 

Imp. sache, sache, sachons, sachez, sachent 

Sub. pres. sache, saches, etc. — Imp. susse 

Seoir, to become, to befit, is not used in the 
infinitive, except sometimes in the participle 
present seyant. In the other moods, it is only used 
in the third persons of some simple tenses, il sied, 
Us sitent, il seyait, il siera> il sierait, quil site. It 
is without preterit in the indicative, without im- 
perfect in the subjunctive, and without compound 
tenses. But seoir, to sit, is used only in these two 
forms, seant and sis of the infinitive. 

Asseoir, oftener used as a reflective verb. 

S'asseoir, To Sit Down. 

P art. pres. s'asseyant — past, assis m. ise f. 

Ind. pres. m'assieds, t'assieds, s'assied, nous asseyons, etc. 

Imp. m'asseyais — Pret. m'assis — Fut. m'assierai or m'asseyerai 

Cond. je m'assierais or m'asseyerais 

Imp. assieds, s'asseye, asseyons, asseyez, asseyent 

Sub. pres. m'asseye — Imp. m'assisse 

N.B. — The compound verb rasseoir, meaning 
either to sit again, to compose, or to sit down again, 
is conjugated in the same manner. 

exercise ou Pouvoir, Savoir, etc. 

When he arrived at home, he could do no more. The 

ind.-4 (with etre) chez-lui n'en in&.-2 * * plus 
minister had (so many) people at his audience, that I could not 
ministre ind.-2 taut de monde a — ind.-3 

speak to him. Shall you (be afraid) that he will not (gain 

2 1 * 2 craignez 1 pouvoir subj.-l venir 



262 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

his end) in that affair? I know that he is not your friend, but I 

a bout de f. de pi. 

know likewise that he is a man of probity. Let them know that 

aussi bieu 

their pardon depends on their submission. I eould wish 

grace dependre de desirer cond.-l 

that he knew a little better his lessons. Let us see if this 
subj.-2 lecon f. pi. voyons 

new-fashioned gown become you, or become you not. Be 
d'un gout nouveau 2 robe f. 1 

assured that colours too gaudy will not become you. The 

art. f. voyant ind.-7 

head-dress which that lady wore (was very unbecoming her). 

coiffure f. que porter ind.-2 seoir mat 

These colours become you so well, it (would be wrong 

part. pres. vous avoir tort cond.-l 

to wear others. Set that child in this arm-chair, and 

de en porter de asseoir m. fauteuil m. 

take care lest he fall. - I will sit down on the top of that 
prendre garde que ne subj.-l s* asseoir sommet 

hill, whence I shall discover a prospect as magnificent as varied. 
cdteau m. decouvrir schie f. 

We were seated on the banks of the Thames, whence we (were 

bord m pi. Thamise f. 

contemplating) those myriads of vessels, which bring, every 

ind.-2 millier vaisseau apporter art. 

year, the riches of the two hemispheres. 

Voir, To See, 
Part. pres. voyant— past vu m. ue f. 
Ind. pres. vois, vois, voit, voyons, voyez, voient 
Imp. voyais — Pret. vis — Fut. verrai — Cond. verrais 

Imp. vois, voie, voyons, voyez, voient 

Sub. pres. voie — Imp. visse 

Mevoir, to see again, and e?itrevoir, to have a 
glimpse of, are conjugated in the same manner; 
but prtvoir, to foresee, has a difference in the future 
and the conditional, where it makes je prevoirai, tu 
prtvoiras, etc.,Jeprevoirais, tu prevoirais, etc. 

Pourvoir 9 to provide, has likewise some dif- 
ferences ; it makes in the preterit definite, je 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 263 

pourvus, tu pourvus, etc. ; in the future je pour- 
voirai) etc. ; in the conditional je pourvoirais, etc.; 
and in the imperfect of the subjunctive queje pour- 
vusse, que tu pourvusses, etc. 

Surseoir, to supersede, though compound of 
seoir, is conjugated like voir, except in the future 
and conditional where it makes je surseoirai, tu 
siwseoiras, etc.,je surseoirais, tu surseoirais, etc. 

Valoir, To be Worth. 
Part. pres. valant — past, valu m. ue f. 
Ind. pres. vaux, vaux, vaut, valons, etc. 

Imp. valais — Pret. valus — Fat. vaudrai — Cond. vaudrais 

Imp. vaux, vaille, valons, etc. 

Sub. pres. vaille — Imp. valusse 

Revaloir, to return like for like, and equivaloir, 
to be equivalent, scarcely used in the infinitive 
mood, are conjugated in the same manner. The 
contrary assertion of some foreign grammarians is 
not founded ; but prevaloir, to prevail, makes in 
the present of the subjunctive que je prevale, que tu 
prevales, quil prevalent, que nous prevalions, etc. 

Vouloir, To be Willing. 

PaPvT. pres. voulant — past, voulu m. ue f. 
Ind. pres, veux, veux, veut, voulons 

Imp. voulais — Pret. voulus — Fut. voudrai — Cond. voudrais 

Imp. Wanting — Sub. pres. voudrais — Imp. voulusse. Veuillez 

is often used in conversation. 

exercise on Voir, etc. 

See the admirable order of the universe ; does it not announce a 
2 1 

supreme architect ? Has he again seen with pleasure his country 

2 architecte m. 1 pays 

and his friends? (Had he had a glimpse of) the dawn of 

entrevoir aurore 

this fine day? To finish their affairs, it would be necessary for 

pour que 

them (to see one another). I clearly foresaw (from that time), all 
Us s "entrevoir subj.-2 bien dis brs 



264 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

the obstacles that he would have to surmount. Would you have 

surmonter ind.-2 
the judge (put off) the execution of the arrest that he had 
que surseoir subj. -2 — arret m. 

decreed ? I shall not put off the pursuit of that affair. If 
rendu poursuite f. pi. art. 

men do not provide (for it), God will provide for it. Should this 

2 y 1 2 1 

book be good for nothing ? You have not paid for this ground 
valoir 2 * Tie 1 rien * terre f. 

more than it is worth ; (are you afraid) that it is not worth six 

f. ne craignez que ne subj.-l 

hundred pounds sterling? Let us take arbitrators. One 

livre f. pi. prenons de art. arbitre 

ounce of gold is equivalent to fifteen ounces of silver. Doubt not 
once f . 

that reason and truth will prevail at last. I can and 

art. art. * ne subj.-l a la longue 

will tell the truth. If you are willing, he will be willing 
pron. dire le le 

too. 
aussi 



IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

branch i. Plaire. 

Braire, to bray, defective, is only used in the 
present of the infinitive ; in the third persons of 
the present and the future of the indicative, il brait, 
Us braient, il braira, Us brairont ; and the present 
of the conditional, Us brairait, Us brairaient ; never- 
theless it may be used with propriety in the other 
persons when a comparison with an ass requires it. 

Faire, To Do, to Make. 
Part, pres. Faisant — past fait m. te f. 
iND.p/es. fais, fais, fait, faisons, faites, font 
Imp, faisais — Pret. fis — Fut. ferai — Cond. ferais 

Imp. fais, fasse, faisons, faites, fassent 

Sub. pres. fasse — Imp. fisse 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 265 

In the same manner are conjugated contrefaire, 
to counterfeit, to mimic ; defaire, to undo ; refaire, 
to do again, salisfaire, to satisfy ; surf aire, to exact, 
to ask too much ; and redefaire, to undo again. 
The four following verbs f orf aire, to trespass ; mal- 
faire, to do ill ; mefaire, to misdo ; and parfaire, to 
perfect, are only used in this form and the participle 
past, for/ait, malfait, me/ait, and parfaiL 

Traire, To Milk (defective). 

P Ab,t. pres. Tray ant — past, trait 

Ind. pres. trais, trais, trait, trayons, trayez, traient 

Imp. trayais — No Pret.—Fut. trairai — Cond. trairais 

Imp. trais, traie, trayons, trayez, traient 

Sub. pres. traie — No imperfect 

Conjugate in the same manner attraire, to allure ; 
abstraire^ to abstract, used only in this form and 
the participle past, in the present and the future of 
the indicative, and the present of the conditional ; 
distraire, to divert from ; extraire, to extract ; ren- 
traire, to darn ; retraire, to redeem ; and soustraire, 
to subtract, to take from. The chief use of all 
these verbs is in the compound tenses ; nevertheless, 
some of them may be used in the simple tenses 
which they have. 

exercise on Faire, etc. 

What will you have him do ? Do not make (so 

Que * que il subj.-l 

much) noise. Do they never ask too much? That woman 

de bruit surfaire 

mimicked all the persons whom she had seen ; that levity ren- 

ind.-3 f. pi. que ind.-6 f. pi. legerete 

dered her odious. It was with difficulty that he (got rid) of the 
rendit 2 1 f. ind. -3 peine que se defaire 

false opinions which had been given him in his infancy. Would 

— f. on * f. pi. 2 lui 1 

it be possible that we should not again make a journey to 

subj.-2art. * voyage de 
N 



266 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Paris, Rome, and Naples? He says that you have offended him, 

pr. pr. dit 2 offenser 3 1 

and that, if you do not satisfy him quickly, he will find the 

2 1 promptement 
means of satisfying himself. Every night, she milked 
moyen sing. se lui-meme art. soir ind. -2 

her sheep, which gave her abundant and wholesome milk. Have 

brebis ind. -2 lui un 2 3 lait m. 1 

you milked your goats ? Are "the cows milked ? Salt is 
chevre f. pi. a-t-on vache f. pi. 2 1 art. sel m. 

good to entice pigeons. You will never know the 

pour attraire art, m. pi. ind. -7 connaitre 

nature of bodies, if you abstract not their necessary qualities 

art. accessoire 2 1 

from those which are inherent (in them). The least thing distracts 
f. pi. f. pi. leur moindre 

him. Will you not extract that charming passage? Have you 

— m. 

darned your gown? Should he not redeem that land? What! 
rentraire retraire 

would you have me withdraw those guilty persons 

ind.-l * queje soustr aire subj. -1 coupable m. pi. 

from the rigour of the laws ? 

a f. 



branch ii. Paraitre. 

Naitre, To be Born. 

Part. pres, naissant — past, ne m. ee f. 

Ind. pres. nais, naissons — Imp, naissais — Pret. naquis — Fut. naitrai 

Cond. naitrais — Imp. nais, naisse, naissons, etc. 

Sub. pres. naisse — Imp. naquisse 

This verb is conjugated in its compound tenses 
with etre. 

Renaitre, to be born again, is conjugated in the 
same manner. 

Paitre, to Graze. 
Part. pres. paissant— past, pu, only used in that familiar phrase, il a 
pu, he has fed 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 267 

Ind. pres. pais — Imp. paissais — No preterit definite — Fut. paitrai 
Cond. paitrais — Imp. pais, paisse, etc. — Sub. pres. paisse— No 

imperfect 

Repaitre, to feed, to bait, is conjugated in the 
same manner, but it has all its tenses. It makes 
in the preterit definite of the indicative je repus, tu 
repus, if reput, nous repumes, etc. ; and in the 
imperfect of the subjunctive, que je repusse, que tu 
repusses, quit reput, que nous repressions, etc. It is 
oi'tener used figuratively. 

exercise on B. 2, Nattre, Paitre, etc. 
Was not Virgil born at Mantua? It is from that poisoned 
ind.-3 Mantoue ce empoisonne 

source that have arisen all the cruel wars which have desolated 

f. que naitre f. pi. f. pi. desoler 

the universe. The fable says that, as soon as Hercules had 

f. dit aussitot que Her cute h m. 

(cut off) one of the heads of hydra, others sprang 

couper tete f. pi. art. hydre f. d'autres 2 il en renai- 

up. While their united flocks fed on the 

tre ind -2 1 tandis que reuni troupeau m. pi. paitre * ind. -2 

tender and flowery grass, they sang under the shade of a 

2 fleuri 3 herhe f. 1 chanter ind. -2 a 

tree the sweets of a rural life. Your horses have not 

art. douceur f. champetre f. 

fed to-day ; you must have them fed. That 

repaltre d'aujouriPhui * il * faire inf-1 

is a man who thirsts after nothing but blood and slaughter. 
7ie se repaitre de2 * que 1 pr. carnage m. 



branch in. Reduire. 



Entire, to rustle, defective, being only used in 
this form ; in the participle present, bruyant, which 
is oftener used as a mere adjective, desflots hruyants; 
and in the third persons of the imperfect of the 
indicative, il bruyait, Us bruyaient. 



268 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Luire, to shine, luisant, lui, and reluire, to shine, 
to glitter; reluisant, rehii, are only irregular in the 
participle past, which does not end in t ; these two 
verbs have neither the preterit definite of the indi- 
cative nor the imperfect of the subjunctive, at least, 
in use. JVnire, to hurt, has the same irregularity ; 
its participle past is nui 9 but it has all the tenses. 

Circonscire, to circumcise, irregular only in the 
participle past, circoncis ; in the preterit definite je 
circoncis, tu circoncis, etc. ; and in the imperfect of 
the subjunctive, que je circoncisse, que tu circon- 
cisses, etc. 

Confire, to Pickle. 

Part. pres. confisant — past, confit m. te f. 

Ikd. pres. confis — Imp. confisais — PreL confis— i<W. confirai 

Cond. confirais — Imp. confis, confise, etc. 

Sub- pres. eonfise — Imp. confisse 

Suffire, to suffice, is conjugated like confire, 
except in the participle past, where it makes suffi. 

exercise on Bruire, Confire, etc. 

The thunder which roared from afar announced a 

tonnerre rn. bruire* ind.-2 dans art. lointain ind.-2 

dreadful storm. They heard roaring the waves of an agitated 
on inf. -2 flot m. pi. agite 

sea. That street is too noisy for those who love retirement 
mer f. rue f. bruyant art. retraite 

and study. I have a glimpse of something that shines 

art. quelque chose 

through those trees. A ray of hope shone upon us in the 
au travers de rayon m. ind.-4 * a 

midst of the misfortunes which overwhelmed us. Every thing is 
milieu malheur m. pi. accabler 

well rubbed in that house; every thing shines, even to the 
frotte y rehire jusqiCd 

* Bruire is better applied to the noise of the wind or of the waves than to 
thunder, for we generally say le tonnerre gronde. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 269 

floor. Would he not have hurt you in that affair? Jesus 

plancher m. * cond.-2 

Christ was circumcised eight days after his birth. Will you 

naissance f. * 
preserve these peaches with sugar, with honey, or with 

confire a art. sucre m. art. miel m. art. 

brandy? Have you pickled cucumbers purs- 

er de vie f. de art. concombre m. pi. pr. art. pour- 

lane, and sea fennel ? If he lose his lawsuit, all his 

pier m. pr. art. perce-pierre f. perd proces 

property will not suffice. 
bien 

Dire, to Say. 
Part. pres. disant — past, dit m. dite f. 

Ind. pres- dis — Imp. disais — Pret. dis — Fut. dirai — Cond. dirais 
Imp. dis. dise, disons, etc. — Sub. pres. dise — Imp. disse 

Observation. 
Conjugate redire, to say again, in the same 
manner ; also the other compounds of dire, viz. 
dedire, to unsay ; contredire, to contradict ; inter- 
dire, to forbid ; mtdire, to slander ; and predire, to 
foretel, except that the second person plural of the 
present of the indicative is regular ; vous dedisez, 
contredisez, interdisez, medisez, predisez*. Maudire, 
to curse, varies by taking two ss in the following 
forms ; first, second, and third persons plural of 
the indicative present, nous maudissons, vous mau- 
dissez, Us maudissent ; third person singular and 
first, second, and third persons plural of the impe- 
rative, qu'il maudisse, maudissons, maudissez, qu'ils 
maudissent ; the subjunctive present, which re- 
sembles the subjunctive imperfect except the third 
person singular of the latter, which makes quit 
maudit ; que je maudisse, que tu maudisses, etc. 

Ecrire, to Write, 
Part. pres. ecrivant— past, ecrit m. te f. 
Ind. pres. ecris — Imp. e'crivais — Pret. ecrivis — Fut. ecrirai 
Cond. ecrirais — Imp. ecris, e*crive, ecrivons, etc. 

Sub. pres. ecrive — Imp. ecrivisse 

* The same observation applies to the above five verbs at the second person 
plural of the Imperative mood, as unsay ye, dedisez, contredisez, etc. etc. — French 
Academy, 



270 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Conjugate in the same manner circonscrire, to 
circumscribe ; dtcrire, to describe ; inscrire, to in- 
scribe; prescrire, to prescribe; proscrire, to pro- 
scribe; souscrire, to subscribe; and trcmscrire, to 
transcribe. 

Lire, to Read. 
Part. pres. lisant— past, lu m. lue f. 

Ind. pres. lis — Imp. lisais — Pret lus — Fut. lirai — Cond. lirais 
Imp. lis, lise, etc. — Sub. pres. lise — Imp. lusse 

The same irregularities are found in retire^ to 
read over again, and elire, to elect. 

Rire, to Laugh, 
Part. pres. riant — past ri 

Ind. pres. ris — Imp. rials — Pret. ris — Fut, rirai — Cond. rirais 
Imp. ris, rie, rions, etc. — Sub. pres. rie — Imp. risse 

Sourire, to smile, is conjugated in the same 
manner. 

Frire, to fry, defective, having only in the infi- 
nitive that form and the participle past/n7; in the 
indicative these three forms of the present, je fris, 
tufris, il frit ; all the persons of the future and the 
conditional, je frirai, nous frirons ; tufrirais, vous 
fririez, etc. ; and in the imperative the form fris. 
To supply the deficiency of the other forms, we 
make use of the verb faire and the infinitive frire, 
as faisant frire 9 je faisais frire, je fis frire, etc. ; 
this verb is used through all its compound tenses. 

exercise on Dire, etc. 

Always speak truth, but with discretion. Never contradict 
dire art. f. 
(any one) in public. You thought to have served me in 
per sonne en — croire ind. -4 * * inf.- 1 2 en 

speaking thus : well, (let it be so) ; you shall not be contra- 
parler ainsi eh bien soit en de- 

dicted. What ! would you prohibit him all communication with 
dire quoi * ind.- 1 interdire 2 hi 1 — 



OF IRREGULAR VERES. 271 

his friends. That woman who slandered every one, soon lost 

ind.-2 de perdre ind.-£ 

all kind of consideration. You had foretold that event. Let us 

curse no one ; let us remember that our law forbids to curse 

nepersonne* se rappeler defendre de 

even those who persecute us. Write every day the reflections 

perse* cuter 2 1 art. pi. 

which you make on the books which you read. Did he not read 
that interesting history with a great deal of pleasure? God is an 

2 1 

infinite being, who is circumscribed neither by time nor 
2 etre m. I ne ni art. ni pr. 

place. Shall you not describe in that episode the dreadful 
art. lieu m. pi. m. horrible 

tempest which assailed your hero ? Have those soles and 

faire frire — pron. 

whitings fried. If you wish to form your taste, read over and 

merlan vouloir * * 

over again, unceasingly, the ancients. He was elected by a great 

relire sans cesse ind.-4 elu a 

majority of voices. We have laughed heartily and have 

majorite f. de bon coeur nous 

resolved to (goon). He did not answer him. (any thing) 

esolu de continuer repondre ind.-3 lui Hen 

but he smiled at him, as a sign of approbation, in the kindest 
ind.-8 * ltd en * — de gracieux 2 

manner. 
air m. 1 

Boire, to Drink. 
Part. pres. buvant — past, bu m. bue f. 

Ind. pres. bois, buvons, etc. — Imp. buvais — Pret. bus — Fut. boirai 
Cond. boirais — Imp. bois, boive, buvons, buvez, boivent 

Sue. pres. boive — Imp. busse 

Conjugate in the same manner reboire. This 
verb is of so little use that it was omitted in the old 
edition of the dictionary of the French academy. 

Clore, to close, out of use, except in the three 
persons singular of the present of the indicative, 

* See p.349- 



272 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

je clos, tu clos, il dot ; in the future, je clorai, tu 
dor as, etc., and the conditional, je clorais, tu do- 
rais, etc. : and in the second person singular of the 
imperative, dos. 

Endure, to enclose, is defective in the same 
tenses. 

Edore, to be hatched, to blow like a flower, de- 
fective, has in the infinitive only this form, and the 
participle past, eclosm. se f. ; in the indicative the 
two third persons of the present, il eclot, Us eclosent ; 
of the future, il eclora, Us ecloront ; of the con- 
ditional, il eclorait, Us edoraient ; and in the sub- 
junctive the two third persons quit edose, quits 
edosent. The compound tenses which are much 
used are constructed with etre, 

Conclure, to Conclude. 
Part. pres. concluant — past conclu m. ue f. 

Ind. pres. conclus — Imp, concluais — Pret. conclus— Fut. conclurai 
Cond. conclurais — Imp. conclus, conclue, etc. 

Sub. pres. conclue — Imp, conclusse 

N. B. — Exclure, to exclude, is conjugated like 
co?idure, except that the participle past is exclue or 
exdus m. se f. 

Croire, to Believe, 
Part, pres, croyant— past, cm m. crue f. 
Ind. pres. crois — Imp. croyais — Pret. crus — iut. croirai 
Cond. croirais — Imp. crois, croie, croyons, etc. 

Sub. pres, croie — Imp. crusse 

exercise on Boire, Clore, etc. 

Seated under the shade of palm trees, they were milking their 
assis a art. palmier pi. * ind.-2 

goats and ewes, and merrily drinking that nectar 

cMvre f. pi pron. brebis f.-pl. avecjoie 2 ind. -2 1 m. 

which (was renewed) every day. Should they not have 
se renouveler ind.-2 art. pi. n'auraienUils pas 

drunk with ice? This window does not shut well ; when you 
cond.-2 a art. f. f. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 273 

hare made some repairs, it will shut better. He had scarcely 
ind.-8 reparation f. pi. f. mieux a peine 

closed his eyes, when the noise which they made at his door 
ind.-6 que que on ind.-3 a 

awoke him. Have they not inclosed the suburbs in the 
reveiller ind.-3 on fauxbourg m. pi. 

city ? Will you enclose your park with a wall or a hedge ? Put 
ville f. de mur m. pr. haie f. mettez 

the eggs of those silk -worms in the sun, that they may 

aitfm.jA. uer-a-sozem.pl. a soleil m. 

hatch. Those flowers, just blown, spread the sweetest 
subj.-l f. 1 nouvdlement repandre doux 

perfume. When did they conclude this treaty? His enemies 
parfum m. ind.-4 traite m. 

managed so well, that he was unanimously excluded from his 

faire ind-3 unanimement 

company. Did you think me capable of so black an act? 
ccmpagme f. croire ind.-4 noir trait m. 



Branch v. Rendre. 

Resoudre, to resolve, a compound of the old verb 
soudre, to solve, quite out of use : 

Part. pres. resolvant — Past resolu m.-lue f. — or resous m. no fem. 
Ind. pres. resous, resolvons, etc. — Imp. resolvais — Bret, resolus 
Fut. resoudrai — Cond. resoudrais — Imp. resous, resolve, etc. 

Sub. pres, resolve — Imp. resolusse 

N. B. — This verb has two participles past, viz. 
resolu, when it means decided, and resous, when it 
means reduced into ; in this last sense it has no 
feminine. 

Absoudre, to absolve, defective, is conjugated 
like resoudre ; it has neither preterit definite in the 
indicative, nor imperfect in the subjunctive ; its 
participle past is absous for the masculine, and 
absoute for the feminine. 

Dissoudre, to dissolve, is conjugated like absoudre, 
n2 



274 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

it lias the same irregularities, and wants the same 
tenses. 

Coudre, to Sew, 

Part. pres. cousant — past, cousu m. cousue f. 
Ind. pres. couds, cousons, etc — Imp. cousais — Pret. cousis 
Fut. coudrai — Cond. coudrais — Imp. couds., couse, etc. 

Sub. pres. couse — cousisse 

N. B. — Dzcoudre, to unsew, and recoudre, to sew 
over again, are conjugated in the same manner. 

Mettre, to Put. 
Part. pres. mettant — past, mis m. mise f. 
Ind. pres. mets, mettons, etc — Imp. mettais — Pret. mis 
Fut. mettrai — Cond. mettrais — Imp. mets, mette, etc. 

Subj. pres. mette — Imp. misse 

Conjugate in the same manner admettre, to 
admit; commettre, to commit; compromettre, to 
compromise ; demettre, to turn out, to disjoint ; 
o?nettre 9 to omit; permettre, to permit; pro?nettre, 
to promise ; remettre, to put again, to restore ; 
soumettre, to submit; transmettre, to transmit ; and 
s'entremettre, to intermeddle. 

exercise on B. 5, Resou&re, etc. 

The wood which is burned resolves itself into ashes and 
bois m. on bruler ind.- 1 se resoudre en cendre f. pr. 

smoke. Have they resolved on peace or war ? The fog 
fumee f. on * art. f. art. f. houillardm. 

has resolved into rain. Could that judge thus lightly absolve 
se resoudre inf.-4 pluie f. se legerement cond.-l 

the guilty ? Strong waters dissolve metals. My 

coupable m. pi. art. fort 2 f. pi. art. 

daughter was sewing all day yesterday. Does he set a great 
fille f. ind.-3 * hier m. mettre 

value upon riches ? I never admitted those principles. Has he 
prix m. a art. 
committed that fault? If he would believe me, he would resign 

faute f. ind.*2 se demettre 

his charge in favour of his son. He put his 
cond- 1 de f. en faveur se demettre * art 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 275 

arm (out of joint) yesterday. I will omit nothing that depends 
bras m. * de rien de ce dependre 

on me to serve you. God frequently permits the 

ind. -7 de pour que 

wicked to prosper. Put .his book in its place again. 

mediant m. pi. * prosper er subj.-l remettre a * 

Under whatever form of government you (may live), re- 

quelque gouvernement m. que 

member that your first duty is to be submissive to the laws. It 

devoir m. de sournis 

frequently happens that fathers transmit to their children their 

arriver art. 

vices and their virtues. He has for a long while interfered 

* * -temps s'entremettre 

with public affairs : but his endeavours have not been crowned 
de art. effort couronner 

with success. 
de art. m, 

Moudre, to Grind. 

Part. pres, moulant — Past, moulu 

Ind. pres. mouds — Imp. moulais — Fret, moulus — Fut. moudrai 

Cond. moudrais — Imp. mouds, qu'il moule, etc. 

Sub. pres. moule — Imp. moulusse 

In the same manner are conjugated emoudre, to 
grind (knives, razors, etc.) ; and remoudre, to grind 
again. 

Prendre, to Take. 

Part. pres. prenant — Past, pris m. se f. 
Ind. pres. prends — Imp. prenais — Pret. pris — Fut. prendrai 
Cond. prendrais — Imp. prends, prenne, prenons, etc. 

SuB.pres. prenne — Imp. prisse 

Conjugate in the same manner apprendre, to 
learn ; comprendre, to apprehend, to understand ; 
deprendre, to loose, to part ; desappre?idre, to 
unlearn ; se meprendre, to mistake, to be deceived ; 
entreprendre, to undertake; reprendre, to take 
again, to reply : and surprendre, to surprise. 



276 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Rompre, to Break. 

Part. pres. rompant — past, rompu m. ue f. 

Ind. pres. romps — Imp. rompais — Pret. rompis — Fut. romprai 

Cond. romprais — Imp. romps, rompe, etc. 

Sub. pres. rompe — Imp. rompisse 

In the same manner are conjugated corrornpre, 
to corrupt, and interrompre, to interrupt. 

exercise on Moudre, Prendre, etc. 

I took great pains ; but, at last I ground all the coffee, 

ind. -3 beaucoup de sing, enfin 

Grind these razors with care. Those knives (are just) ground. 

rasoir m. couteaum. venir d'etre 

This grain is not sufficiently ground, it should be ground 

assez falloir ind.-l le inf.-l 

again. I wish that you would take courage. What news have 

vouloir — 

you learnt ? Philosophy comprehends logic, ethics, 

f. art. art. logique f. art. morale £ 

physics, and metaphysics. It is (with difficulty) that 

art. physique f. art. metaphysique f. Ce difficilement que 

he (gets off) from his opinions. He has forgotten all that 

se deprendre* — desapprendre ce que 

he knew. I fear you will undertake a task above your 

ind. -2 que subj.-l tdche f. au-dessus de 

strength. Could he have been mistaken so grossly ? I reproved 
f. pi. cond.-2 grossierement reprendre 

him continually of his faults, but (to no purpose). We sur- 
ind.-2 sam cesse defaut inutilement 

prised the enemy and cut them in pieces. In the middle of the 
pi. tailler en a 

road, the axletree of our carriage (broke down.) Bad 

chemin essieu m. carrosse se rompre art. 

company corrupts the minds of young people. WTiy do you 
f. pi. gens pourquoi 

interrupt your brother when you see him busy ? 
quand occupe 

* Deprendre being now very little used, it is better to employ either the verba 
se detacher or se departir, etc. — Noel and Chapsal 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 277 

Suivre, to Follow. 
Part. pres. suivant— Past, suivi m. ie f. 
Ind. pres. suis — Imp. suivais — Pret. suivis — Fut. suivrai 
Cond. suivrais — Imp. suis, suive, etc. 

Sub. pres. suiye — Imp. suivisse 

S'ensuivre, to ensue, and poursuivre^ to pursue, 
are conjugated in the same manner, 

Vaincre, to Conquer. 

Part. pres. vainquant — Past, vaincu m. ue f. 

Ind. pres. vaincs* — Imp. vainquais* — Pret. vainquis — Fut. vaincrai 
Cond. vainerais — Imp. vaincs*, vainque, vainquons*, etc. 

Sub. pres. vainque* — Imp. vainquisse 

N. B.— All the tenses of this verb marked with 
an asterisk are very little used. Conjugate in the 
same manner convaincre, to convince. These two 
verbs are irregular, only because the c is changed 
into qu before a, e, i 9 o. Convaincre is used through 
all its tenses and persons. 

Battre, to Beat. 

Part. pres. battant — Past battu 

Ind. pres. bats — Imp. battais — Pret. battis — Fut. battrai 

Cond. battrais — Imp. bats, batte, etc. 

Sub. pres. batte — Imp. battisse 

Ahattre, to pull down ; combative, to fight ; 
s'ehattre, to rejoice (an old word, almost out of use), 
and rebattre, to beat again, to repeat, are conju- 
gated in the same manner. 

Etre, to be, which has already been conjugated 
through, p. 183. 

Vivre, to Live. 
Part. pres. vivant — past, vecu 

Ind. pres. vis — Imp. vivais — Pret. VQcns—'Fut. vivrai 
Cond. vivrais — Imp. vis, vive 

Sub. pres. vive — Imp. vecusse 

Conjugate in the same manner revivre, to revive, 
and survivre, to survive. 



278 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



(For a long while) we followed that method, which was only 

Long-temps 2 ind.-3 1 f. ind.-2 ne que 

fit to mislead us. What (is the consequence) ? See the errors 

propre egarer que s'ensuivre 

which have sprung from that proposition, which ap- 

s'ensuivre ind.-4 f. pi. — f. 

peared so true. We followed our road, when some cries 

ind.-2 ind.-2 chemin lorsque de art. cri m. pi. 

which came from the midst of the forest, carried 

* sortir inf. -3 fond m. porter ind.-3 art. 
terror into our souls. The Greeks vanquished the Persians at 

ejjroi m. Grec Perse a 

Marathon, Salamis, Platea, and Mycale. I have, at last, con- 

pr. Salamine, pr. Platee pr. 

vinced him, by such powerful reasons, of the enormity of his 

de art. si fort 2 f. pi. I = 

fault, that I (have no doubt) but he will repair it. It 

faute f. ne douter nullement que ne reparer subj.-l Ce 

is during winter that they thrash the corn in cold countries. 

pendant art. on froid 2 pays 1 

The enemies were so well beaten in that engagement, that they were 

rencontre f. 

forced to abandon thirty leagues of the country. The cannon 

de lieue f. * pays 

(threw down) the tower. They fought with unexampled 

abattre ind.-3 ind.-2 art. sans exemple 

fury, when a panic terror made them take flight 

acharnement m. panique f. ind.-3 lew art. fuite f. 

and dispersed them in an instant. Beat these mattresses 

rehattre fnatelas m. pi. 

again. Happy those who live in solitude ! Long live 

* art. retraite f. que 1 4 subj.-l 3 
that good king ! He did not long survive a person who was so 

2 long-temps ind.-3 a f. 

dear to him. Fathers live again in their children. He was in 

art. 
a strange dejection of mind ; the news which he has received, 

accablement f. £ 

has revived him. 
faire revivre 



TABLE OF VERBS. 



279 



OBSERVATIONS. 

The two following tables exhibit the primitive 
tenses of the regular and irregular verbs, and some 
of the defective, with the pages where the other 
tenses are to be found; it will prove useful to 
consult them. 



TABLE OF THE PRIMITIVE TENSES OF THE FOUR 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 



IN FIN. 



PARTICIPLES. 



INDICATIVE. 



PRESENT. PAST. PRESENT. 



PRET. DEF. 



Parler 



P&rlant 



FIRST CONJUGATION. 
1 Parle J Je parle 



Je parlai 



Pa?e 
I 191 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 



Tunir 

Sentir 

Mentir 

Se repentir 

Pai-frV 

Sortir 

Dormir 

SernV 

Ouvrtr 

Couv rir 

Oftrir 

Soufirir 

Tenir 

Venir 



Yxxnissant 

Sent ant 

Mentant 

Se ienenta?it 

Parte nt 

Soitant 

Dormant 

Servant 

Ouvrant 

Couvrant 

OtTrant 

SouffV ant 

Tenant 

Venant 



Fn?ii 
Senti 
Menti 

Repent 

Par** 

Sorti 

Dorm* 

Servi 

OvLvert 

Convert 

OfTert 

Souffert 

Tenu 

Venu 



Je pun is 
Je sens 
Je me ns 
Je me repent 
Je pars 
Je sors 
Je dor* 
Je sers 
J'ouvre 
Je couvre 
J'ofire 
Je souffrc 
Je tiens 
Je viens 



Je rmnis 
Je sentis 
Je menu's 
Je me repentw 
Je park's 
Je sortis 
Je dormis 
Je servis 
J'ouvris 
Je couvm 
J'ofire* 
Je souffm 
Je tins 
Je vins 



203 
203 
203 

222 



203 



Receuoir 
Devoir 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



Kecevant 
Devant 



Regit 
Du 



Je repot* 
Je dois 



Je re cms 
Je dus 



211 
Z12 



280 



TABLE OF VERBS. 



INFIN. 



PRESENT. 



PARTICIPLES. 



PRESENT | PAST. 



INDICATIVE. 



PRESENT. PRET. DEE. 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



Repandre 


Bepan&ant 


Repandw 


Je repandj 


Rendre 


Ren da nt 


Rendw 


Je rend* 


Fondre 


Fondant 


Fondw 


Je fond 5 


Repondre 


Repondarctf 


Repondw 


Je reponds 


Tondre 


Tondant 


Tondtt 


Je tonds 


Perd/e 


Perdawtf 


Perdw 


Je perds 


Mordre 


Mordant 


Mordw 


Je mords 


Tordre 


Toidant 


Tordw 


Je tord* 


Vlaire 


Vlaisant 


Pitt 


Je plais 


Taire 


Taisant 


Tu 


Je Xais 


Taiaztre 


Paraissant 


Paru 


Je parais 


Croitre 


Croissant 


Crw 


Je crois 


Connaitre 


Connaissant 


Connw 


Je connaz's 


Hepaitre 


Kepaissant 


Repw 


Je re-pais 


Reduire 


Re&uisant 


Redm'£ 


Je reduis 


Instruire 


Instiuisant 


Instrmtf 


J'instruis 


Craindre 


Craignant 


Craint 


Je crains 


Peindre 


Peignant 


Feint 


Je peiw* 


Joindre 


Joignant 


Joint 


Je joins 



Je repandzs 
Je rendzs 
Je fondis 
Je repondz's 
Je tondz's 
Je perdz* 
Je moid is 
Je tordzs 
Je plus 
Je tus 
Je para* 
Je crus 
Je connws 
Je repw* 
Je reduim 
J'instruisz* 
Je cvaignis 
Je peignis 
Je ]o\gnis 



Vagi 



215 



PRIMITIVE TENSES OF THE IRREGULAR WITH SOME 
DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



FIRST CONJUGATION. 
Aller j Allant | Alle | Je vais j J'allai 

SECOND CONJUGATION. 



J 243 



Fleurir j 
Hair 


Fleurissant 
Florissant 


| Fleuri 


Je ileuris 


Je fleuris 


250 


Haissant 


Hai 


Je hais 


Je hais 


250 


Gesir* 


Gisant 




11 git 




251 


Bouillir 


Bouillant 


Rouilli 


Je Lous 


Je bouillis 


251 


j£bouillir 




J^bouilli 






252 


Courir 


Courant 


Couru 


Je cours 


Je eourus 


252 


Faillir 


Faillant* 


Failli 


Je faux* 


Je faillis 


252 


Defaillir 




Defailii 


Nous defaillons 


Je defaillis 


253 


Fuir 


Fuyant 


Fui 


Je fuis 


Je fuis 


253 


Mourir 


Mourant 


Mort 


Je meurs 


Je mourus 


253 


Aequerir 


Acquerant 


Acquis 


J'acquiers 


J'acquis 


254 


Conquerir 


Conquerant 


Conquis 


Je conquiers 


Je conquis 


255 


Ou'ir 


Oyant* 


Oui 




J'ouis 


255 


Vetir 


Vetant 


Vetu 


Je vets 


Je vetis 


255 


Revetir 


Revetant 


Revetu 


Je revets 


Je revetis 


255 


Cueillir 


Cueillant 


Cueilli 


Je cueille 


Je cueillis 


257 


Saillir 


Saillant 


Sailli 


11 saille 


11 saiTlit 


257 


Tressaillir 


Tressaillant 


Tress ailli 


Je tiessaille 


Je tressaillis 


257 



N.B.— The tenses marked with an asterisk are obsolete. 



TABLE OF VERBS. 



281 



IN FIN. 


PARTICIPLES. 


INDICATIVE. 


PRESENT. 


PRESENT. j PAST. 


PRESENT. PRET. DEF. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



Ayant 

Echeant 

Mouvant 

Pleuvant 

Pouvant 

Sachant 

Seyant 

Seant 

As seyant 

Voyant 

Prevoyant 

Pourvoyant 

Valant 

Voulant 



Eu 

Chu 

Dechu 

Echu 

Fallu 

Mu 

Promu 

Plu 

Pu 

Su 

Sis 

Assis 

Sursis 

Vu 

Prevu 

Pourvu 

Valu 

Vouiu 



J'ai 



Je dechois 
II echoit 
II faut 
Je mens 

II pleut 
Je puis 
Je sais 
II sied 

J'assieds 
Je sursois 
Je vois 
Je prevois 
Je pourvois 
Je vaux 
Je veux 



J'eus 



Je dechus 
J'echus 
II fallut 
Je mus 
Je promus* 
II plut 
Je pus 
Je sus 



J'assis 
Je sursis 
Je vis 
Je previs 
Je pourvus 
Je valus 
Je voulus 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



Solvant* 



Resolvant 


/resous \ 
(.resolu J 
Absous 


Je resous 


Je resolus 


Absolvant 


J'absous 




Dissolvant 


Dissous 


Je dissous 




Cousant 


Cousu 


Je couds 
11 sourd 


Je cousis 


Mettant 


Mis 


Je mets 


Je mis 


Mouiant 


Moulu 


Je mouds 


Je moulus 


Pre nan t 


Pris 


Je prends 


Je pris 


Romp ant 


Rompu 


Jo romps 


Je rompis 


Suivant 


Suivi 


Je suis 


Je suivis 


S'ensuivant 


Ensuivi 


11 s'ensuit 


11 s'ensuivit 


Vainquant 


Vaincu 


Je vaincs* 


Je vainquis 


Battant 


Battu 


Je bats 


Je battis 


Etant 


Eve 


Je suis 


Je fus 


Vivant 


Veeu 


Je vis 

11 brait 


Je vecus 


Faisant 


Fait 


Je i'ais 


Je fis 


Trayant 


Trait 


Je trais 




Naissant 


Ne 


Je nais 


Je naquis 


Renaissant 




Je renais 


Je renaquis* 


Paissant 


Pu 


Je pais 




Bruyant 








Luisant 


Lui 


Je luis 




Nuisant 


Nui 


Je nuis 


Je nuisis 


Conusant 


Confit 


Je confis 


Je confis 


Suffisant 


Suffi 


Je suffis 


Je suffis 



The tenses marked with an asterisk are obsolete. 



282 



TABLE OF VERBS. 



INFIN. 


PARTICIPLES. 


INDICATIVE. 


PRESENT. 


PRESENT | PAST. 


PRESENT. 


PRET. DEF. 






FOURTH CONJUGATION continued ; 


Page 


Circoncire 


Circoncisant 


Circoncis 


Je circoncis 


Je circoncis 


268 


Dire 


Disant 


Dit 


Je dis 


Je dis 


269 


Med ire 


Medisant 


Medit 


Je medis 


Je medis 


269 


Mau dire 


Maudissant 


Maudit 


Je raaudis 


Je maudis 


269 


Ecrire 


Ecrivant 


Ecrit 


J'ecris 


J'ecrivis 


269 


Lire 


Lisant 


Lu 


Je lis 


Je lus 


270 


Rire 


Riant 


Ri 


Je ris 


Je ris 


270 


Frire 




Frit 


Je fris 




270 


Boire 


Buy ant 


Bu 


Je Lois 


Je bus 


271 


Clore, clorre 




Clos 


Je clos 




271 


Conclure 


Concluant 


Conclu 


Je conclus 


Je conclus 


272 


Exclure 


Excluant 


/Excluor 
\ exclus 
Cm 


■J J'exclus 
Je crois 


J'exclus 


272 


Croire 


Croyant 


Je cms 


272 


Poindre 






11 point 







N.B. 



-The derivative tenses will be found with the primitives to which we have 
given references. 



SUPPLEMENT TO THE A r EEBS. 283 



SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS. 



%* We hope the Pupil will find great assistance from the following 
method of conjugating French Verbs. 



PARADIGM 

Showing the identity of French Verbs in the ending of Syllables. 

INFINITIVE. 
Pres. er ir oir re parler, agir, devoir, rendre 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. ant for every verb parlant, agissant, devant, rendant 

re m. ee f. i m. ie f.-\ 

Past. < u m. ue f. s m. se f. Kparle, agi, du,fait, mis, rendu 

t t. m. tef.J 













INDICATIVE 














PRESENT. 






J e 


tu 


il 


nous 


vous ils 




1. 


e 


es 


e 


ons 


ez ent 


faime, es, e, I love 


2, 


s 


g 


t 


oris 


ez ent 


je sens s, t, I feel 


3. 


X 


X 


t 


ons 


ez ent 

IMPERFECT. 


je veux, x, t, I am willing 


i. 


ais 


ais 


ait 


ions 


iez aient 

PRETERIT. 


je parlais,je sentais 


1 


ai 


as 


a 


ames 


ates erent 


je parlai^j^aimai 


•2. 


is 


is 


it 


imes 


ites irent 


fagis,jefis 


3. 


us 


us 


ut 


umes 


utes urent 


je recus, jefus 


4. 


ins 


ins 


int 


inmes 


intes inrent 


je tins, je vins 



FUTURE. 

1. rai ras ra rons rez rout je devrai, j' aimer ai 

CONDITIONAL. 
1. rais rais rait rions riez raient je devrais, j'aimerais 



284 SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

je tu il nous vous ils Compound Tenses, 

I. e es e ions iez ent que faime, queje sente 

IMPERFECT. 

1. sse sses t ssions ssiez ssent que faimasse, sentisse 

IMPERATIVE. 

1. e qu'il qu'ils parle, qu'il parle 

2. s e ons ez ent lis, qu'il Use 

Observe that this general rule suffers exceptions, 
as it may have been perceived in some persons of 
the verbs avoir, etre, aller, dire, /aire, convaincre, 
and vaincre. 

OF REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 

Two things are to be observed in the conjugation 
of a verb ; viz. the radical and final letters. A 
regular verb keeps its radical letters throughout the 
conjugation. 

The radical letters of a verb are those which 
precede the final, which are common to all the 
verbs of the same conjugation, and consequently 
varying their terminations according to circum- 
stances, whilst the radical remain unchangeable : 
for instance, in aimer, to love, sentir, to feel, the 
syllables aim and sent are the radical letters, and er 
and ir the final ones ; therefore to conjugate a verb 
after any paradigm or model, it is necessary to 
observe what are the radical letters in the two verbs 
and add to the radical the final or termination which 
is wanted. 

Let us suppose for instance, that we want to find 
out the first person plural of the future of the verb 
aimer, having parler for paradigm. I observe that 
the above two verbs both end in er, having for their 
radical the one aim and the other pari ; then I look 



SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS. 



285 



for the conjugation of parler as being the paradigm, 
and find parlerons, the very tense wanted ; now if 
I take off' the final erons and carry it to the radical 
aim, I shall have dimerous, or the first person 
plural of the future I wanted to find out. 



i. regular conjugation in er, ant, e. 

As the termination of er, ant, e, of the first re- 
gular conjugation offers no difficulty, we shall omit 
it and pass to the second. 



ii. regular conjugation in ir, issant, L 

INFINITIVE. 
Punir Part, pres. punissant — Past, pimi m. ief. is and ies pi 



INDICATIVE. 

je til il nous vous 

Pres. pun-is is it issons issez 

Imp. pun-issais issais issait issions issiez 

Pret. pun-is is it imes ites 

Put. pun-irai iras ira irons irez 

Con. pun-irais irais irait irions iriez 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
que 
Pres. pun-isse isses isse issions issiez 
Imp. pun-isse isses it issions issiez 
Imp. pun- is isse issons issez 



ils Com. Tenses, 
issent j'ai puni 
issaient f avals puni 
irent feus puni 
iront faurai puni 
iraient faurais puni 



que 
issent faie puni 
issent feusse puni 
issent 



About two hundred verbs in civ, dir,gir, mir, nir, 
tir, etc., are conjugated in the same manner. 

The following table is a list of the most useful 
verbs of the second conjugation, which being re- 
gular, are all conjugated like the paradigm punir. 



286 



SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS. 



abolir 


to abolish 


fournir 


to furnish 


abrutir 


to besot 


*fleurir 


to flourish 


accomplir 


to accomplish 


fremir 


to shudder 


adoucir 


to sweeten 


garantir 


to warrant 


offer mir 


to strengthen 




f to garnish 
I to furnish 


agir 


to act 


garnxr 


aigrir 


to anger 


gemir 


to groan 


amortir 


to quench 


guerir 


to cure 


aneantir 


to annihilate 


*hair 


to hate 


appauvrir 


to grow poor 


invest ir 


to invest 


applaudir 


to applaud 


jouir 


to enjoy 


assortir 


to match 


langidr 


to languish 


assouvir 


to satisfy 


compdtir 


to commiseraie 


as&ujettir 


to subject 


murir 


to ripen 


avertir 


to warn 


meurtrir 


to bruise 


bannir 


to banish 


munir 


to stare 


bdtir 


to build 


nourrir 


to nourish 


*benir 


to bless 


obeir 


to obey 


blanchir 


to whiten 


pdlir 


to grow pale 


cherir 


to cherish 


perir 


to perish 


choisir 


to choose 


polir 


to polish 


convertir 


to convert 


pourrir 


to rot 


diver tir 


to divert 


refroidir 


to grow cold 


eblouir 


to dazzle 


rejouir 


to rejoice 


eclair civ 


to clear 


remplir 


to fill 


elargir 


to widen 


resplendir 


to shine 


endurcir 


to harden 


retentir 


to resound 


engloutir 


to swallow up 


reussir 


to succeed 


enrichir 


to enrich 


saisir 


to seize 


ensevelir 


to shroud, bury 


subir 


to undergo 


etrecir 


to straighten 


terrdr 


to tarnish 


etablir 


to establish 


vieillir 


to grow old 


sevanouir 


to swoon 


unlr 


to unite 


finir 


to finish 







Benir, fleurir, and hair, have some irregularities, see p. 250, irregular verbs. 



Pres. 



REGULAR CONJUGATION IN ir, (lilt* i. 

INFINITIVE. 

Sentir — Part. pres. sentant- — Past, senti m. ie f. is, ies pi 
INDICATIVE. 
je tu il nous vous ils Com. Ten. 



tons 



tez tent j'ai senti 



SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS. 



287 



Imp. 
Fret. 

Fat 

COND. 


sent-ais 
sent-is 
sent-irai 
, sent-irais 


ais ait ions 
is it imes 
if as ira irons 
irais irait irions 


iez 
ites 
irez 

iriez 


aient 
irent 
iront 
iraient 


favais senti 
feus senti 
f aurai senti 
faurais senti 






SUBJUNCTIVE. 






Pres. 

Imp. 


que 
sent-e 
sent-isse 


es e ions 
isses it issions 


iez 

issiez 


ent 

issent 


que 
faie senti 
feusse senti 






IMPERATIVE. 








sen- 


s te tons 


tez 


tent 





The verbs of this conjugation ending in tir in 
the infinitive, drop the t in the first and second 
persons singular of the present indicative, as sortir^ 
to go out ; Ind. pres. je sors, tu sors, il sort. The 
other verbs drop the letter which precedes ir in the 
three persons singular of the same tense as above. 
Example, servir, to serve ; Ind. pres.jesers, tu sers, 
il sert. 

The following are conjugated like sentir : 



INFIN. FART. PRES. COM. PRES. 

to consent consentir ... ...consentant * j"ai consenti 

to give one thelie ...dementir dementant j'ai dementi 

to disoblige desservir desservant j'ai desservi 

to sleep dormir dormant j'ai dormi 

to lull asleep endormir endormant j'ai endormi 

to fall asleep s'endormir ...s'endormant ...je me suis endormi 

to lie .mentir mentant j'ai menti 

tosetout partir partant .je suis parti 

to foresee pressentir . . .pressentant ...j'ai pressenti 

to sleep again redormir redormant j'ai redormi 

to fall asleep again .se rendormir ,se rendormant .je me suisrendormi 

to set out again repartir repartant \ bo ^. J ® € ^ and 

to repent se repentir ...se repentant ...je me suis repenti 

to resent ressentir ressentant j'ai res senti 

to go out again ...ressortir ressortant je suis ressorti 

to serve servir servant j'ai servi 

to make use of se servir de ..se servant de ...je me suis servi de 

{both je suis and 
j'ai sorti 



to go out sortir 



.sortant., 



288 



SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS. 



III. REGULAR CONJUGATION IN OJ>, Wit, U m. U€ f. 

us m. pi., ues f. pi. 

The third regular conjugation recevoir, to receive, 
or devoir, to owe, does not offer more difficulty than 
the first. Concevoir, to conceive ; apercevoir, to 
perceive ; decevoir, to deceive, are regular and con- 
jugated like recevoir or devoir. Observe that there 
is no circumflex accent on redu, past participle of 
redevoir, to owe again, but only on clu, past par- 
ticiple of devoir. 





IV. REGULAR CONJUGATION 


in re, 


ant, u. 








INFINITIVE. 






Vendre — Part 


. pres 


vendant — Past, vendu m. ue 


f. us, ues pi. 








INDICATIVE. 






Pres. 

Imp. 

Pret. 

Put. 

Con. 


vend-s 

vend-ais 

vend-is 

vend-rai 

vend-rais 


tu 
s 

ais 
is 
ras 
rais 


il nous vous 
vend ons ez 
ait ions iez 
it imes ites 
ra rons rez 
rait rions riez 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


ils 

ent 

aient 

irent 

ront 

raient 


Com. Tenses. 
fai vendu 
favais vendu 
feus vendu 
faurai vendu 
faurais vendu 


Pres. 
Imp. 


que 
vend-e 
vend-isse 


es 

isses 


e ions iez 
it issionsissiez 

IMPERATIVE. 


ent 

issent 


que 
faie vendu 
feusse vendu 




vend- 


s 


e ons ez 


ent 





REGULAR CONJUGATION IN W, UlSant, Ult 

INFINITIVE. 

Reduire — Part. pres. reduisant — Past, reduit m. tef. uits, uites pi. 

INDICATIVE. 

j e tu il nous vous ils Com. ^Tenses. 

Pres. redu-is is it isons isez isent fai reduit 



SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS. 



289 



INDICATIVE continued. 





je 


tu 


il nous vous 


ils 


Com. Tenses, 


Imp. 


redui-sais 


sais 


sait sions siez 


saient 


favais reduit 


Pret 


redui-sis 


sis 


sit simes sites 


sirent 


feus reduit 


Fut. 


redui-rai 


ras 


ra rons rez 
CONDITIONAL. 


ront 


faurai reduit 




redui-rais 


rais 


rait rions riez 


raient 


faurais reduit 



redui- 



IMPERATIVE. 

i sons sez sent 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

que 
Pres. redui-se ses se sions siez 
Imp, redui-sisse sisses sit sissions sissie 



sent 
sissent 



que 
fate reduit 
feusse reduit 



Verbs in this conjugation ending in gnant in the 
present participle, as joindre, to join ; peindre, to 
paint; co?itrai?idre, to constrain ; etc., take g before 
the letter n in the three persons plural of the indi- 
cative present; in the whole of the imperfect, etc. 
—(See the fourth conjugation of verbs, p. 215.) 



290 OF PREPOSITIONS. 



CHAPTER VI. 

OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions are words which serve to express the 
relations of things one to another, and this they do 
by joining the noun or pronoun following to the 
word that precedes them. When we say le fruit de 
Varbre, the fruit of the tree, de expresses the rela- 
tion between fruit and arhre. When we say utile a 
Vhomme, useful to man, a makes the noun homme 
relate to the adjective utile. De and a are prepo- 
sitions, and the word which follows them is called 
the regimen of the preposition. 

These words are prepositions, because they are 
generally placed before the noun which they 
govern. 

There are different kinds of prepositions ; the 
principal ones are as follows : 

Those denoting place are : 

1st. Chez, at. // est chez-lui, he is at home. 

2ndly. Dans, in. II se promene dans le jardin, 
he is walking in the garden. 

3rdly. Devant, before. B est toujours devant mes 
yeux, he is always before my eyes. 

4thly. Derriere, behind. // ne regarde jamais 
derriere lui, he never looks behind him. 

5thly. Parmi, among. Que de fous parmi les 
hommes! How many fools among men ! 

6thly. Sous, under. La taupe vit sous terre, the 
mole lives under ground. 

7thly. Sur, upon, on. II a le chapeau sur la 
tete, he has his hat on (his head). 

8thly. Vers, towards. Laimant se tourne vers le 
nord, the loadstone points towards the north. 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 291 

exercise on the foregoing Prepositions. 

We find less real happiness in an elevated condition than in a 
On de bonheur 2. — f . 1 

middling state. One is never truly easy but at home. 

moyen 2 1 veritablement tranquille que soi 

He walked before me to serve me as a guide. There was a de- 

marcher pour de * — ind.-2 

lightful grove behind his house. Among (so many) different na- 

2 bosquet 1 tant de 2 

tions, there is not one that has not a religious worship. 

1 y en avoir subj.-l 2 culte m. art. 

Nature displays her riches with magnificence under the torrid 

deployer — torride 2 

zone. Eternal snows (are to be seen) on the summit of 

f. 1. de art. 3 5 f. pi. 4 on I voir 2 ind.-l sommet 

the Alps. Towards the north, nature presents a gloomy and 

art. triste 2 

savage prospect. 
3 aspect m. ] 

Those denoting the order are : 

1st. Avant, before. La nouvelle est arrivee avant 
le courrier, the news is come before the courier. 

2ndly. Apres, after. II est trop vain pour marcher 
apres les autres, he is too proud to walk after other 
people. 

3rdly. Entre, between. Elle a son enfant entre 
les b?*as, she holds her child between (in) her arms. 

4thly. Depuis, since, from. Depuis la creation 
jusqua nous, from the creation to the present time. 

5thly. Des, from. Des son enfance, from his 
infancy ; des sa source, from its source. 

exercise on Avant, Apres, etc. 

We (were up) before daylight, (in order to) enjoy the 
se lever ind.-6 art. * pour de 

magnificent spectacle of the rising sun. After such great 
magnifique 2 m. 1 levant 2 1 de si 

faults, it only remained for us to repair them (as well as 

faute f. pi. ne r ester ind 2 * que reparer de notre 



292 OF PREPOSITIONS. 

we could). Between those two mountains is a hollow deep 
mieux creux 2 et profond 3 

road. Many very astonishing events (have taken place) 

chemin m. 1 * de art. 2 1 il se passer ind. -4 

tftt/Atit these ten years. .From the earliest infancy I have had an ab- 
depuis * tendre * 

horrence of lying- 

horreur art. mensonge m. 

Those denoting union are : 

1st. Avec, with. II faut savoir avec qui on se 
lie, we ought to know the persons with whom we 
associate. 

2ndly. Durant, during. Durant la guerre, 
during the war ; durant Vtte, during the summer. 
This preposition expresses a continued duration. 

3rdly. Pendant, during, in. Pendant Vhiver, in 
the winter time ; pendant la paix, in time of peace. 
This preposition denotes a duration limited, re- 
stricted to a given time. 

4thly. Outre, beside. Outre des qualites aimables, 
il faut encore, etc., beside aimiable qualities, there 
ought still, etc. 

Bthly. Suivant, according. Je me deciderai sui- 
vant les circonstances, I shall determine according 
to circumstances. 

6thly. Selon, according, by. Le sage se conduit 
selon les maximes de la raison, a wise man acts 
according to the dictates of reason. 

exercise on Avec, Durant, etc. 

With wit, politeness, and a little readiness to oblige, 

de art. pr. art. peu de prevenance a 

one generally succeeds in the world. We are fit for medita- 

On propre a art. — f. 

tion during winter. In the course o/that siege, the commandant of 

siege m. — 

the city made some very lucky sallies. Beside the exterior 
ind.-3 de art. heureux sortie f. pi. 2 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 293 

advantages of figure, and the graces of deportment, she pos- 

1 art. — art. maintien 

sesses an excellent heart, a just mind, and a sensible soul. Always 
avoir 2 12 1 2 1 

behave yourself according to the maxims which I have inculcated 
se conduire f. pi. inculquer 

on you. 

Those denoting opposition are : 

1st. Contre, against. Je plade contre lui, I 
plead against him. 

2ndly. Malgre, in spite of. // Va fait malgre 
moi, he has done it in spite of me. 

3rdly. Nonobstant, notwithstanding. Nonobstant 
ce qiCon lui a dit, notwithstanding what has been 
said to him. 

exercise on the three foregoing Prepositions. 

We cannot long act (out of) our own character ; notwith- 
savoir cond.-l agir contre * 

standing all the pains we take to disguise it, it shows itself 
que pour se montrer 

and betrays us on many occasions. In vain we dissemble 

trahir en bien de art. nous avoir beau faire 

in spite of ourselves, we are known at last. 

a la longue 

Those denoting separation are : 

1st. Saris, without. Des troupes sans chefs, 
troops without, commanders. 

2ndly. Excepte, except. Excepte quelques mal- 
henreux, except some wretches. 

3rdly. Hors, except, save. Tout est perdu hors 
Vhonneur, all is lost save honour. 

4th ly. Uormis, except, but. Tous sont entrts 
hormis mon frere, they are all come in but, except, 
my brother. 



294 OF PREPOSITIONS. 

exercise on Sans, Excepte, etc. 
(Had it not been for) your care, I should have been ignorant all 
sans pi. un 

my life-time. All the philosophers of antiquity, except a few 
* art. = tres- 

have held the world to be eternal. All laid down 
petit nombre croire * * mettre bas 

their arms, except two regiments, who preferred making their 

* art. sefaire 

way through the enemy. Everything is absurd and ridi- 
jour au tr avers de pi. 

culous in that work, except a chapter or two. 
ouvrage m. 

Those denoting the end are : 

1st. Envers, towards, to. II est charitable envers 
les pauvres, he is charitable to the poor. 

2ndly. Touchant, respecting. // a ecrit touchant 
cette affaire, he has written respecting that business. 

3rdly. Pour, for. II travaille pour lebien public, 
he labours for the public good. 

exercise on the three above Prepositions. 
I have written to you concerning that business in which I take the 
most lively interest, and as I know your benevolence towards the 

vif 2 1 bienveillance f, 

unfortunate, I (make not the least doubt) that you (will carefully 
malhcureux ne douter nuUement donner tons vos 

attend) (to it), (not so much) for the satisfaction of obliging 
soins subj.-l y moins inf.-l 

me, as for the pleasure of justifying innocence and confounding 
justifier art. pr. confondre 

calumny, 
art. f. 

Those denoting the cause and the means are : 
1st. Par, by. 17 Va fitchi par ses prieres, he has 

softened him by his prayers. 

2ndly. Moyennant^ by means, for, J7 reussira 

rnoyennant vos avis, he will succeed by means of 

your counsels. 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 295 

3rdly. Attendu, on account of, for. 27 ne penf 
partir attendu les vents contraires, he cannot sail os 
account of contrary winds. 

exercise on the foregoing Prepositions. 

Is there any man that has never been softened by 
Y avoir aucun subj.-l fiechir subj.-3 art. 

tears, or disarmed by submission? Through the precautions 

ni desarmer art. — 

which we took, we avoided the rocks of that dangerous coast. 
que ind.-3 ecueil m. pi. 2 cote f. I 

Owing to the bad state of my father's health, I shall not travel 

voyager 
this year. 
annee f. 

The use of the three following ones is much 
varied and very extensive. 

A generally denotes the end and limit of a rela- 
tion. It denotes the place we are going to, the end 
we have in view ; aller a JLondres, to go to London ; 
courir a sa perte, to run to one's ruin ; aspirer a la 
gloire, to seek after glory. It also denotes the place 
we are at ; etre a Rome, to be at Rome ; time, a 
?nidi, at twelve o'clock; circumstances, a ce sujet, 
on this subject ; the manner, supplier a mains 
jointes, to beg hard ; and by analogy, peindre a 
I'huile, to paint in oil colours ; the state we are m, 
etre a son aise, to be at ease ; the quality of things, 
bas a troisfils, three thread stockings ; the end and 
the use of a thing, une table a manger ^ the dining 
table ; the disposition of a person, homme a reussir, 
a man (capable) to succeed ; and by analogy, crime 
a ne pas pardonner, a crime not to be forgotten, 
etc. 

exercise on a. 

Fathers ! give good counsels, and still better examples to 
de encore 2 pr. meilleur 1 



296 OF PREPOSITIONS. 

your children. A good minister only aims at the glory of well 

ne aspirer que a 
serving his country. When we were in the country, we devoted 
servir pays ind.-2 a campagne f. consacrer 

the morning to study, we (took a walk) at noon, and at 
ind.-2 art. se promener ind.-2 midi 

three or four o'clock, we went a hunting or fishing. 

heure ind.-2 art. chasse f. pr. art. peche f. 

Michael Angelo has painted a great deal in fresco. It is a bed with 
Michel Angelo fresque Ce lit m. 

ivory posts and hind's feet. That man, with his gloomy 
colonne d'ivoire pr. pied de biche * sombre 2 

looks and blunt deportment, seems to me fit only 

regard m. 1 pr. art. brusque 2 maintien m. 1 ne que 

to serve as a bugbear. 
de * ipouvantail 

De generally denotes the place where we come 
from, the point where a thing begins, from which 
it is extracted, from which it takes its name ; as je 
viens de France , I come from France ; dun bout a 
V autre, from one end to the other. It also expresses 
the relations of appurtenance, le palais du roi, the 
king's palace ; les facultes de fame, the faculties of 
the soul ; homme d? esprit, a man of wit ; femme de 
sens, a woman of sense; a part of a whole, moitie 
de 9 the half of; quart de, the fourth part of; the 
state, mourir de /aim, de soif, to die of hunger, of 
thirst ; the means, vivre de fruits, to live upon fruit ; 
sauter dejoie, to jump for joy, etc. 

exercise on De. 

I come from London, where I have spent a week very agree- 
ou passer huit jours 

ably. From one end of the horizon to the other, the sky was 

bout m. m. del m. 

covered with thick and black clouds. The marble of 

tpais 2 noir 3 nuage m. pi. 1 

Paros is not finer than that which we get from Carrara. Mon- 

nous vient Carrare 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 297 

taigne, Mad. de Sevigne, and la Fontaine, were writers of 

ind. -2 de art. ecrivain uti 
truly original genius. One half of the terrestrial world is covered 

2 3 1 terrestre globe m. 

with water, and above a (third part) of the rest is (without inha- 

plus de tiers m. inhabite 

bitants), either through extreme heat or through excessive 
ou par un 2 chaleur f. I un — 2 

cold. In that happy retreat, we lived on the milk of our 
froid m. 1 asile ind.-2 

flocks, and the delicious fruits of our orchards. 
brebis pr. — 2 I verger m. pi. 

En generally relates to time and place ; etre en 
Angleterre, to be in England ; aller en Italie, to 
go to Italy. It also denotes the state ; etre en bonne 
same, to be in good health ; en pais, at peace ; en 
guerre^ at war ; the cause, il T a fait en haine de lui, 
he did it through hatred for him, etc. 

exercise on En. 

He had for a (long while) lived in France, of which he 
3 * depuis 1 * long-temps 2 vivre ind.-2 
was passionately fond; the troubles which agitated that 
aimer passionnement le sejour ind. -2 — ind. -4 

fine kingdom obliged him to retire to Switzerland, whence he 

royaume m. ind.-4 de se retirer Suisse d'ou 

soon after set off for Italy. We weie at peace, and 

se rendre ind. -4 ind. 2 pron. 

enjoyed all its charms, when ambition rekindled the torch 
ind.-2 de art. ralhtmer ind. -3 feu 

of war, and forced us to put our frontiers into a state of 

art. ind. -3 de mettre frontier es f. pi. * 

defence. The savage is almost continually at war; he cannot 

presque toujours 
remain in quiet. He has acted, on this occasion, like a great 

repos dans or en 

man. 



o2 



298 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



Prepositions joined to an English verb and which 
are not expressed in French : 





EXAMPLES. 




to pull down 


abattre 


to take away 


oter, enlever 


to give up 


abandonner 


to comment upon 


paraphraser 


to seal up 


cacheter 


to bring back 


ramener 


to fill up 


comhler 


to find out 


trouver 


to tear off 


dechirer 


to go up 


monter 


to root out 


deraciner 


to go down 


descendre 


to fly away 


s'envoler 


to come in 


entrer 


to wipe off 


epoudrer 


to go out 


sortir 


to faint away 


s'evanouir 


to look at 


regarder 


to turn out 


expulser 


to look for 


chercher 


to get up 


se lever 


to wonder at 


admirer 


to send for 


mander 


to wait for 


attendre, etc 




Observations. 





Verbs composed with a preposition. 

The English give to many of their verbs a signi- 
fication quite opposite to the primitive one, by pre- 
fixing to them the preposition unor dis ; the French 
give it by prefixing des to the words which begin 
with a vowel or h mute, and de to those which 
begin with a consonant. 



EXAMPLES. 



border 
dehor der 
compter 
decompter 



to border 
to zmborder 
to count 
to discount 



approuver 
desapprouver 
honorer 
dishonorer 



to approve 
to disapprove 
to honour 
to dishonour 



The English put the word again after a verb to 
express the reiteration of a thing ; the French 
express it by prefixing the preposition re to the 
verb when it begins with a consonant, and r only 
when it begins with a vowel or h mute. 





EXAMPLES. 


appeler 


to call 


demander to ask 


Tappeler 


to call again 


redemander to ask agai 


kabitter 


to dress 


etc., etc. 


xhabiUer 


to dress again 





OF THE ADVERB. 299 



CPAPTER VII. 

OF THE ADVERB. 

The Adverb is a word indeclinable, which is 
generally joined to the verb or the adjective in 
order to determine its signification. When we say 
cet enfant parle distinct ement, that child speaks dis- 
tinctly, by the word distinct entente w r e give to under- 
stand that he speaks one way rather than another. 

There are adjectives which are sometimes used 
as adverbs, as il chant Juste, he sings right ; elle 
chant e faux, she sings out of tune ; its ne voient pas 
clair 9 they do not see clear ; cette Jieur sent hon, 
this flower has a good smell, etc. The adjectives 
juste, faux, clair, and bon, are here used as 
adverbs. 

Most of the French adjectives become adverbs 
by altering their final according to the three fol- 
lowing rules. 

RULE I. 

Adjectives which end in ant or ent become ad- 
verbs by changing the final ant in amment^ and ent 
into eminent, as constant, prudent, patient, adjec- 
tives : const amment, prudemment, patiemment, ad- 
verbs. The only exceptions are lentement and 
prtsentement , from the adjectives lent and present. 

RULE II. 

Adjectives which end in a vowel become adverbs 
by adding ment to the final, as sage, poli, ingenu, 
adjectives ; sagement, poliment, ingtnument, ad- 
verbs. The adjectives beau, foil, nouveau, andmou, 
become adverbs by adding ment to their feminine 



300 



OF THE ADVERB. 



belle, folle, nouvelle, and molle ; bellenient,follement, 
nouvellement, mollement. 

Exception. — Impuni makes impunement, and 
tr (litre* traitreusement. 



RULE III. 

Adjectives which end neither with a vowel nor in 
ant or ent in the masculine singular, become ad- 
verbs by adding ment to their feminine termination, 
as grand, doux, heureux, adjectives masculine ; 
grande, douce^ heureuse, adjectives feminine; grande- 
ment, doucement, heureusement, adverbs. 

Exception. — Gentil makes genthnent, prettily. 

The e which precedes ment is generally mute in 
adverbs formed from adjectives, except however 
the following, which take t instead of the mute e f 
as 



aveuglement 
commodement 


blindly 
commodiously 


enormement 
opirddtrement 


enormously 
obstinately 


incommodement 

communement 

confusement 

expressement 

conformement 


incommodiously 

commonly 

diffusedly 

expressedly 

conformably 


importunement 
ohscurement 
precisement 
profondement 


importunately 
obscurely 
precisely 
deeply 



and a few others which may be learnt by practice. 

N.B. — It must be observed that the e sharp in 
the adverb ement, generally comes from the adjec- 
tives which have that e acute in their masculine, as 
aise, easy ; adverb aisement ; mod'trt, moderate ; 
adverb modtrtment ; and so forth. 

Observation. 
The following are not derived from adjectives : 



eomment 


how 


profusement 


lavishly 


incessament 


presently 


nuitammi nt 


by night 


notamment 


especially 


sciemment 


knowingly 



OF THE ADVERB. 



301 



Adverbs denoting manner, and a few others have, 
like adjectives, the three degrees of comparison, as 
profondement, aussi, plus, or mains profondement, 
fort, Men, or tres profondement, and le plus pro- 
fondement. 



The following are irregular ; 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


bien well 


mieux better 


le mieux the best 


mal bad 


pis worse 


le pis the worst 


peu little 


moins less 


le moins the least 



COMPOUND ADVERBS. 



Compound adverbs in adverbial French locution, 
consist of the assemblage of several words, which 
being put together, have the signification of ad- 
verbs, as 



a contre-sens 

a contre-temps 

mal-a-propos 

tout-a-coup 

tout-a-faii 

tour-a-tour 

peu-a-peu 



wrong sense 

untimely 

unseasonably 

unexpectedly 

entirely 

by turn 

little by little 



a peu-prds 

de temps en temps 

tout-a-lheure 

sens dessus-dessous 

pele-mele 

a Pamiable 



thereabout 

now & then 

presently 

topsy-turvy 

confusedly 

amicably 



How to distinguish an Adverb from a Preposition. 

The difference between an adverb and a prepo- 
sition is known by the regimen, which is either ex- 
pressed or understood after the preposition, whilst 
the adverb stands always alone, and never followed 
by any other word related to it, as 

U est arrive avant moi he has arrived before me 

vous creusez trop avant you dig too deeply 

In the first sentence, avant is a preposition fol- 
lowed by its regimen moi, and in the second, it is 
an adverb of place, after which there is no other 
word. 



302 OF THE ADVERB. 



exercise on the foregoing Rules. 



Bourdaloue and Massillon have both spoken very 

— — Vun et V autre 

eloquently on evangelical truths; but the former has principally 
evangelique 2 1 

(proposed to himself) to convince the mind ; the latter has gene- 
se proposer convaincre 

rally had in view to touch the heart. Several of la Bruyere's cha- 
en vue de 

racters are as finely drawn, as delicately expressed. Buffon is one 
finement trace 

of the best writers of the last age: he thinks deeply, draws 

siecle m. peindre 

strongly, and expresses himself nobly. Corneille and Racine are the 
two best French tragic writers ; the former's pieces are 

3 tragique 2 po'ete 1 art. 1 

strongly, but incorrectly written ; the latter's are more regularly 

2 3 1 celles 

fine, more purely expressed, and more delicately imagined. 
beau pense 

Adverbs of Doubt and Affirmation. 

There are still various sorts of adverbs. 
1st. Those denoting affirmation, as certes, cer- 
tainly ; oui, yes ; soit, be it so ; volontiers, willingly. 
Doubt. Peut-etre, perhaps. 
Denial. Non, ne, ne pas, ne point, no, not. 

exercise on the above. 

Certainly, either I mistake, or the business passed 

ou se tromper ind.-l se passer ind.-l 

(in that manner). Do you think that he listens willingly to this 

ainsi ecouter 

proposition ? Have you ever read in Racine the famous scene of 
Phaedra's delirium? Yes, I have, and I own it is one of the 
delire m, la lu que 

finest of the French theatre, Perhaps you will discover, on a 
2 m, 1 dans 

second perusal of la Fontaine's fables, beauties which you 

lecture f. de art. que 



OF THE ADVERB. 303 

had not perceived at first. Will you have some? No. Will 

apercevoir f. pi. a art. f. 2 * en 1 2 

you not have some ? The man who is willing to do good 

rCen * pas 3 vouloir * * art. 

is not stopped by any obstacle. I will pay him what 

arrete aucun pas is not expressed lui ce que 

I owe, but not all at once. 
lui non pas dsni.foisf. 

Adverbs of Order, Place, or Distance. 

2ndly. Some denote the order or rank, as pre- 
mierement, first ; secondement, secondly, etc. ; 
d'abord, at first ; apres, after ; avant, auparavant, 
before, etc. 

3rdly. Others denote the place or distance, viz. 
for the place, ou^ where ; ici, here ; la, there ; deqa 3 
on this side ; dela, on that side ; partoitt, every- 
where ; for the distance, pres, near; loin, far; 
proche, nigh, etc. 

exercise on the above. 

We ought first to avoid doing evil ; aftenvards we 

falloir ind.-l * de inf.-l art. 

ought to do good. Read books of instruction first, and af- 

* art. 1 art. 3 4 2 

terwards you may pass to those of entertainment. If you will 

* ind.-7 agreement vouloir s'en 

go, settle first what is to be done. The painter had 
aller regler auparavant ind.-l falloir * * inf.-l 
(brought together) in the same picture several different objects; 

rassemhler un tableau 

there, a troop of Bacchants ; here, a troop of young people ; there, a 

gens 
sacrifice ; here, a disputation of philosophers. Sesostris carried 
— te f. pousser 

his conquests farther than Alexander did since. Call upon your 

conquete ne ind.-l depuis passer chez 

cousin ; he lives near (this place). I cannot see that, if I be not 
loger 2 ici 1 ind.-l 

near it. When he knew where he was, he began 

aupres * quand savoir ind.-3 ind.-2 commencer ind.-3 



304 OF THE ADVERB. 

to fear the consequences of his imprudence. The wicked is, 
suite — ] 

wherever he goes, agitated with remorse. Contemplate {at a dis- 

tourmente de remords de 

tance) the high mountains, if you wish to discover prospects 

loin • vouloir * de art. site m. 

varied and always new. 

Adverbs of Time. 

4thly. There are some that denote the time, 
either in a determinate, or in an indeterminate 
manner. Those denoting a determinate time are 
for the present, maintenqni, now ; a present, at 
present; actuellement, this moment, etc. For the 
past, hier, yesterday ; avant-hier, the day before 
yesterday ; autrefois, formerly, etc. And for the 
future, demain, to-morrow ; apres-demain, the day 
after to-morrow, etc. Those denoting an indeter- 
minate time are, souvent, often ; d ordinaire, most 
times; quelquefois, sometimes; matin, early; tot, 
soon ; tard, late, etc. 

exercise on the above Adverbs. 

I have finished the work as you desired me; what do 
achever que ordonner ind.-6 que 

you wish me to do now? Formerly, education was neg- 

2 vouloir 1 que 3 je * subj.-l — 

lected ; it is wow (very much) attended to; it is (to be hoped) 

on 1 4 beaucoup 3 s'occuper en2 falloir esperer 
that new views will soon (be adopted). They grieved 

on 1 5 3 2 adopter ind.- 7 de 4 on s'affligerind.-Z 

(at it) yesterday ; now they laugh (at it], ; to-morrow it will no 

en rire en on 

longer be thought of. It is one of those accidents which it is 
plus penser ind.-7 y 
sometimes impossible to avoid. The dew incommoded me (very 

de serein m. ind.-4 

much) ; 1 shall not {in future) walk so late, Rude and 

desormais malhonnete 



OF THE ADVERB. 305 

coarse criticism generally (does greater injury) to the per- 

grossier art. f. oVordinaire nuire plus 

son who (permits himself) to exercise it, than to him who is the 
se permettre * * celui 

object (of it.) 
en 

Adverbs of Quantity. 

5thly. Some express quantity ; as peu, little ; 
assez, enough; trop, too much; beaucoup, much, 
very much ; ta?it, so much, etc. 

And, lastly, some express comparison ; as plus, 
more; moins, less; aussi, so; autant, as much, etc. 

exercise on the above Adverbs* 

There are many people who have pretensions ; but very 
y avoir beaucoup de * a * — 

few who have well founded ones. To (bestow too much em- 
qui en ind.-l * defondi f. pi. * * * 1 * 

bellishment upon) a subject, frequently betrays a want of judgment 
embellir 2 * souvent 2 etre 1 faute 

and taste. One very often finds a listlessness in the midst of the 

art. ennui a 
most noisy pleasures. She is a giddy and thoughtless woman, 

bruyant 2 1, Ce leger 2 inconsequent 3 1 

who speaks much and reflects little. She has so much goodness, 

reflechir de 

that it is impossible not to love her. These stuffs are beautiful ; 

etqffe f . 
consequently cost dear. This book is valuable, but there are 

aussi elles couter cher 
some others as good. If he has done that, I can do (as much). 

en * de en autant 

What I say to you (about it) is meant less to give you 

en ce * pour faire de art. 

pain, than to warn you of what is said. She is 

averiir art. propos pi. que on tenir avoir 

six years younger than her brother. Nobody has more interest 

de moins ne de 

than you (have in the success) of the thing. You do not 

a ce que reussir subj.-l 2 * 1 



306 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

offer enough for this gander; give something more. The more 
offrir de de * 1 

ignorant we are, the less so we (believe ourselves). 

4 b?i 2 S * 1 le 4 2 croire 3 Vetre 5 



CHAPTER VIII. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

The conjunction is a word which serves to con- 
nect sentences. When we say, il pleure et rit en 
meme temps, he cries and laughs at the same time, 
this word et unites the first sentence il pleure with 
the second il rit. Likewise, when we say, Pierre 
et Paul rient, Peter and Paul laugh ; the word et 
unites these two sentences into one, Pierre rit and 
Paul rit. 

There are different kinds of conjunctions. 

1st, To unite two nouns or two verbs under the 
same affirmation, or under the same negation ; et is 
used for the affirmation, and ni, neither, nor, for 
the negation. 

2ndly. To denote an alternative, or distinction 
between objects, we make use of ou, either, or; 
soit que, whether, or; tantot, sometimes, etc. 

3rdly. To restrict an idea, sinon, but, except ; 
quoique, encore que, though, although ; a moins que, 
unless, till. 

exercise on the above Conjunctions. 

Gold and silver are metals less useful than iron. 

art. art. de art. art. 

To listen with joy to a slanderer, and to applaud him, is to 

* medisont * lui ce * 

revive the serpent who stings, that he may sting more effec- 

rechauffer piquer a fin que plus sure- 

tually. I like neither the flatterer nor the wicked. Those who have 

ment ni flatteur ni 



OF CONJUNCTIONS. 307 

never suffered, know nothing ; they know neither good nor 

savoir connaitre art. bien pi. 

evil. You may choose either a happy mediocrity, or a 
art. mal pi. avoir a choisir de = f. de 

sphere more elevated, but exposed to many dangers. He is an 

f. bien de art. — Ce 

inconsistent man ; he is sometimes of one opinion, and sometimes 
sans consistance 2 1 tantot avis 

of another. I have (nothing more) to say to you, only that I will 

ne autre chose sinon que 1 3 

have it so. I shall not yet pass to the perusal of the authors of 

* 2 * encore lecture f. 

the second c4ass, unless you advise me to do so. 

or die m. ne conseiller subj.-l 1 * * 

4thly. To express the opposition of an object to 
another; mats, but; cependant, yet, nevertheless; 
neanmoins, for all that, however ; pourtant, how- 
soever, though ; toutefois, Men que, although. 
These last five conjunctions have almost the same 
meaning. 

5th!y. To express a condition; si, if; sinon que, 
except that ; a moins que, unless, till ; pourvu que, 
save that ; a condition que, upon the condition that. 

6thly. To express consent ; a la verite, indeed : a 
la bonne heure, very well ; quand, when ; non que, 
not that ; quoique, encore que, etc., though, for all 
that. 

7thly. To explain something ; savoir, dest-a-dire, 
viz., that is to say; comme, as. 



The serpent bites : it is only a bite ; but from this bite the 
ce ne que morsure f. 

venom communicates itself to the whole body : the slanderer speaks ; 
venin 

it is but a word, but this word resounds everywhere. (That is) 

ne que parole f. retentir voild 

certainly a superb picture ; nevertheless, there is some incorrectness 
tableau incorrection 



308 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

in the design. Although Homer, according to Horace, slumbers 
de * dessin sommeiller subj.l 

(at times), he is nevertheless, the first of all poets. You will 
quelquefois 1 en 34 ne 2 pas moins art. 

succeed, provided you act with vigour. We surmount 

pourvu que agir subj.-l 
every obstacle, when it (is question) of gratifying our passions; 

art. — pi. s'agir satisfaire 

the least difficulty stops us, when it (is necessary) to combat them. 

s'agir de 
We have within us two faculties seldom united, viz. imagination 

en art. 

and judgment, 
art. 

8thly. To express relation or parity between two 
propositions; comme, as ; ainsi, thus, so; de meme, 
as, just as; ainsi que, as; autant que, as much as; 
si que, so as ; etc. 

9thly. To express augmentation or diminution; 
1st. for augmentation ; d'ailleurs, besides, moreover; 
outre que, besides that ; deplus, au surplus, besides, 
furthermore ; 2nd. for diminution ; au moins, du 
moins, pour le moms, at least. 

lOthly. To express the cause or the wherefore of 
a thing ; car, for ; comme, as ; parceque, besides ; 
puisque, since ; pour, that, in order that, etc. 

EXERCISE. 

The most beautiful flowers last but a moment ; thus 

durer ne que art. 2 

human life passes away. The (greatest part) of mankind have 

4 3 1 * plupart f. art. homme pi. pi. 

like plants, hidden qualities that chance discovers. 

art. de art. cache propriete art. has ard fair e decouvrir 

Madame de Sevigne's letters are models of elegance, 

art. de art. pr. 

simplicity, and taste ; besides, they are replete with interesting 

— pr. plein de 2 

anecdotes. Nothing more entertaining than history ; besides 
1 de amusant art. 



OF CONJUNCTIONS. 309 

nothing is more instructive. Circumstances show 

de conusant art. occasion pi. faire connaitre 

us to others, and still more to ourselves. I shall always advise 

encore conseiller 

you to take the ancients as your guides ; at least, quit but 
de pour * s'eearter 2 de 5 ne 1 

seldom the way which they have traced for you. We 
que 3 4 6 route que 2 tracer f . 3 * 1 

must, at least, know the general principles of a language, before 
falloir inf.-l de 

{we take upon ourselves) to teach it. Certain people hate 
* se meter de * enseigner 2 1 f. gens 

grandeur, because it lowers and humiliates 

art. — f. ob. pron. rabaisser ob. pron. 

them, and makes them feel the privation of the advantages 

les que elle leur bien pi. 

which they love. 

llthly. To draw a conclusion; or, now; done, 
then ; par consequent, consequently ; cest pourquoi, 
therefore. 

12thly. To express some circumstance of order or 
time ; quand, lorsque, when ; pendant que, tandis 
que, etc., whilst, while; tant que, as long as; de- 
puis que, ever since ; avant que, before ; des que, 
aussitot que, d'abord que, as soon as ; a peine que, 
hardly, scarcely ; apres que, after that ; enfin, in 
fine, finally, to conclude, etc. 

13thly. To express the passage from one circum- 
stance to another ; car, for ; en effet, indeed, in 
effect; au reste, besides, otherwise; a propos, now 
I think of it ; apres tout, after all. 

EXERCISE. 

We ought to love what is amiable ; now, virtue is ami- 
* falloir ind.-l * art. 

able; therefore we ought to love virtue. We ought to practice 

* ilfaut * * falloir * 

what the gospel commands us ; now it commands us not only to 
evangilem. 2 1 non de 



310 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

forgive our enemies, but also to love them. Despre'aux was 
pardonner a encore de 2 I 

extremely exact in not coming late, when he was in- 

de la plus grande exactitude f. a inf.-l trop 

vited to dinner; he said that all the faults of those who (are 

ind.-2 defaut se /aire 

waited for) present themselves to those who wait 

attendre (active voice) 1 aitendre 3 

for them. The pride, which possesses us, visible as it is, es- 

* 2 tout que 

capes our eyes, while it manifests itself to the eyes of the public, 

a 
and displeases every one. After we had examined that 

choquer a art. esprit pi. iud.-5 

singular effect, we (enquired into) its causes. We had hardly 

1 2 rechercher 2 en art. ind.-2 

done, when he came in. Pride counterpoises all our imperfections, 
finir que entrer conire-peser misere pi. 

for whether it hides them, or whether it discovers them, it glories 

soit que cacher que se glorijier 

in knowing them. None but an Englishman can (be a 

de inf.-l y avoir ne que qui subj.-l 

judge of) Shakespear ; for what foreigner is sufficiently versed in 

juger 
the English language to discover the sublime beauties of that 
pour 

author ? 

The conjunction que serves to conduct the sense 
to its complement. It is always placed between 
two ideas, the first of which must always be fol- 
lowed by another, in order to complete the sense ; 
as il est tres-important que tout le monde soit in- 
struit, it is of great importance that every body 
should be well instructed. It differs from the 
relative pronoun que, inasmuch as it can never be 
turned into lequel, laqueile. The conjunction que 
is generally repeated before every member of a 
period. 

The conjunction que also serves to complete a 
comparison. UAsie est plus grande que V Europe, 



OF CONJUNCTIONS. 311 

Asia is larger than Europe. 2ndly, to express a 
restriction in negative sentences ; on ne parle que de 
la nouvelle victoire, they talk of nothing but the 
new victory. — (See the syntax of conjunctions. 
p. 503.) 

exercise on Que. 
As long as I live, this image will be before my eyes ; and, 

ioute ma vie — f. peint 

if ever the gods permit me to reign, I shall not forget, after so ter- 

faire * 

rible an example, that a king is not worthy of com- 

mas not expressed) 
manding, nor happy in his power, (but in proportion as) he sub- 
et puissance f. quautant que sou- 

jects it to reason. I am very glad to see that you do not love 
mettre art. de 

flattery, and that one (runs no risk) in speaking to you with sin- 

ne hasarder rien a inf.-l 

cerity. We have everything to fear from his wisdom, even more 

encore 
than from his power. What men style greatness, glory, power, 

appeler 

deep policy, is to the eyes of God but misery, weakness, and 
prqfond politique f. n 1 
vanity. 

The conjunction que also serves to give more 
force and grace, more vivacity and precision to 
sentences. 

1st. In elliptical turns, quil vive, may he live ; 
that is, /e souhaite quil vive, I wish he may live. 

2ndly. When it is put for a moins que, avant que, 
sans que, as cela ne finira pas quil ne vienne, there 
will be no end to it unless he come. 

3rdly. When it is used instead of des que, aussitot 
que, si, as qitil fasse le moindre exces, it est malade, 
if he but indulge in a little excess, he is ill. 

4thly. When it is put for jusqita ce que, as at- 
tendez quil vienne, wait till he come. 

5thly. When for pourquoi, as que ne se corrige-t- 
il f why does he not reform ? 



312 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

exercise continued on Que. 

May they understand, at last, that without internal peace there 

art. 1 
is no happiness ! May she be as happy as she deserves to be. 

point de de 2 

Never write before you have thoroughly examined 

le 1 subj.-l sous toutes ses faces 2 1 

the subject which you propose to treat. Let him but hear 

3 se proposer de * entendre 

the least noise, his terrified imagination presents to him nothing 

but monsters. Do not sift this question, before I can 

nequede approfondir we sub.- 1 

(be your guide). Do not go out till your brother come? 
vous mettre sur la vote ne rentrer 

in. Why does he not (take advantage) of his youth, in order to 

profiter 
acquire the knowledge he wants ? 

connaissances dont avoir besoin 



6thly When it is used instead of comme or 
parceque, as mediant qiiil est, wicked as he is. 

7thiy. When it is put for combien, and then it 
denotes admiration and the sudden emotions of the 
soul, as que Dieu est grand! how great is the Al- 
mighty ! queje Faime .' how I love him ! 

Another very frequent use of this conjunction is 
to put it for comme, parceque, puisque, quand, 
quoique, si, etc., when to prepositions beginning 
with these words, others are added under the same 
regimen, by means of the conjunction et, as si Fon 
aimait son pays, et qiton dtsirdt smcerement sa gloire, 
on se conduirait de maniere, etc. ; if we loved our 
country, and sincerely wished its glory, we should 
act so as ? etc. 

EXERCISE. 

Full as he was of his prejudices, he would not agree to any 
rempli ind.-3 convenir de 



OF INTERJECTIONS. 313 

thing. Full of self-love (as he is), expect nothing good (from 

petri 13 2 de 

him). How beautiful is that cultivated nature ! How, through the 

en 5 4 13 2 par 

cares of man, it is brilliantly and pompously adorned ! Had 

magnifiquement paree si de 

profound philosophers presided at the formation of languages, 

a art. 

and had they carefully examined the elements of speech, 

que avec soin art. discours 

not only in their relations (to one another) but also in themselves, 
non rapport entr'eux encore en 

it is not (to be doubted) that languages would ofTer prin- 

douteux art. subj.-2 de art. 

ciples more simple, and at the same time, more luminous. 
en mime 



CHAPTER IX. 
OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are words which serve to express 
the various sentiments and sudden emotions of the 
soul. They have no fixed place in speech, but show 
themselves accordingly as the sentiment that pro- 
duces them comes to manifest itself externally. 
The only thing to be attended to, is not to place 
them between words which custom has made inse- 
parable. There are interjections for every affection 
of the mind, viz. 

["surprise ouais 

\pain and grief ... aye! ah! helas ! ouf! Mon Dieu! etc, 

\fear ha! he! 

Jjoy and desire ... ah ! bon ! 6 ! 

Fori aversion fi ! fi done ! oh oh ! 

jderision oh! eh! zest! 

/consent certes ! soit ! volontiers ! 

/admiration oh! o! 

\ astonishment ... oh! bon Dieu! misericorde ! 
P 



1 14 RECAPITULATION. 

{qare ! alerte ! hold ! tout beau ! chut ! hem I 
hold he! 
encouragement... oh! allons ! courage! 

calling hold! ho! 

silence chut! paix! st! 

! applauding bravo ! vivat ! 

I encoring bis, bis ! encore, encore ! 

i disgust pouah, pouah ! 



For 



RECAPITULATION ; 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISE ON THE NINE PARTS OF 
SPEECH. 

THE GOOD MOTHER. 

1. What a fine morning ! said the amiable Charlotte to her 
matinee f. ind.-3 
brother George. Come, let us go into the garden and enjoy the 

* inf.-l du 

magnificent sight of a rich and fruitful nature. We will 
spectacle m. 2 3 1 

gather there the freshest and sweetest flowers. We will 

cueilUr 3 ?/2 frais 2 art.-adv. odorant 3 f. pi. 1 

make a nosegay which we will offer to mamma. You know 

bouquet m. maman savoir que 

she loves flowers. This attention will give her pleasure. Ah ! 
art. f. — /aire lui 

brother, it will obtain us a smile, a caress, perhaps even a 
mon f. valoir sourire m. f. 

kiss. Ah ! sister, replied George, your project delights 
baiser m. ma repondre ind.-3 enchanter 

me ; let us run, let us fly, that we may offer her | when she 

courir voler afin de * * lui a son 

rises | this homage of our gratitude and our love. Full of this 
lever pr. plein 

idea, Charlotte and George hastened into the garden. 

se hater ind.-3 de se rendre 
Charlotte gathered violets, jessamine, and young 

ind.-3 pr. art pr. art. pr. de 



RECAPITULATION. 315 

rose buds which had but just begun to open their 

2 bouton m. 1 ne commencer que ind. -2 entfouvrir de 

purple cups, while George prepared green sprigs of 

pourpre 2 calice 1 ind. -2 art. verdoyant 2 jet m. 1 

myrtle and thyme, designed to support flowers. Never had 
myrie pr. tkym destine soutenir art. 1 ind.-2 3 

these amiable children worked with | so much | zeal and ardour. 
2 travailler tant de zele pr. 

Satisfaction and pleasure were painted in all their 

art. — f. art. qui ind.-2 peint 

features, sparkled in their eyes, and still added to their beauty. 
trait m. petiller ind. -2 encore 2 1 

2. While they ]°*were employing themselves | in this manner, j 
s'occuper ind.-2 ainsi 

their mother, who had seen them in the garden, came to join 

ind.-2 apercu ind.-3 * joindre 

them. J As soon as | they perceived her, they flew to her, and 

des que ind.-3 ind. -3 elle lid 

said : Ah ! mamma, how glad we are to see you ! how | impa- 

que aise 2 I de tarder ind. -2 

tient we were | for this pleasure. In the pleasing expectation 

a notre impatience d 'avoir ce dou.v attente f. 

| of it, ] we were preparing this nosegay for you. What satisfac- 

* ind. -2 * f. 

tion should we have had in presenting it to you ! | Look at j 

ne cond.-2 pas a 1 offrir 4 3*2 voir 

these rose buds, these violets, this jessamine, this myrtle, and this 
thyme. Well, we designed them for you. These flowers, 

eh bien destiner ind. -2 * 

coming from us, would have been dear to you. When you wore 

cond.-2 cher en * porter inf. -2 

thern, you would have said : My children were occupied about 

cond.-2 s'occuper ind.-2 de 

me, while I slept. I am always as present to their minds as to 

dormir ind -2 
their hearts. They love me, and it is by giving me every day 

ce en art. pi. de 

new proofs of their love, that they acknowledge the care 

preuve f. reconnaitre soin m. pi. que 

I have taken of them in their childhood and all the marks of ten- 
derness I ( never fail | to give them. 
que ne cesser de leur 



316 RECAPITULATION. 

3. My dear children, replied the mother, embracing 

repondre ind.-3 en embrasser 

them, how charming you render all my days ! Your gratitude, 

quel charme repandre sur * 

your tenderness, your attentions to me make me forget my for- 

pour oublier an- 

mer misfortunes, and open my heart again to the soft impressions 
cien malheur m. fouvrir * — f. 

of pleasure. May Heaven continue to bless my 

art. pouvoir subj.-l art. continuer a 

labours ! May it be your guide and (your) support in the ca- 
soin pouvoir — car- 

reer which | will soon be opened | to you ! May it com- 
riere f. aller ind.-l s'ouvrir devant mettre le 

plete its kindness by preserving you from the dangers to 
comble a bienfait pi. en gar antir inf. -2 de m. pi. 

which you cannot fail to be soon exposed ! Alas ! I shudder | at 

ne pas tarder ind.-7 * fremir 

it | beforehand, my dear children ; the moment is come when you 
en d'avance oil 

must enter the world. Your figure, your birth, and your 
devoir dans naissance 

riches call you | to it, | and assure you a distinguished rank. 
appeler y assurer 2 m, 1 

1 cannot always be your guide. Young and inexperienced, you 
ind.-7 sans experience 

| will find yourselves | surrounded by every kind of seduction. 
aller ind.-l se trouver — pi. 

Everything, even vice, offers itself there in an ami- 

jusque a art. m. y sous * de art. 

able form, and almost always under the shape of pleasure, which 

pi. image art. 

has | so many | allurements for youth. They will try to 

tant de attrait pi. art. jeunesse f. on chercher 

mislead you, to corrupt you ; they will | make use of | artifice, 

egarer employer art. — 

raillery, and even of ridicule, and, if it is necessary, 

art. art. meme 2 * art. 

they will take also the mask of virtue. If you yield 

jusque a masque m. art. se laisser aUer 

to the first impressions, you are lost. The poison of example 
— f. art. 



RECAPITULATION. 317 

will insinuate itself into your hearts, will alter the innocence 
se glisser alt ever 2 

and purity | of them, [ and will substitute violent pas- 

art, en 1 de art. dechirant — 

sions for the gentle affections which have hitherto made 

f. pi. jusqu'a present 

you happy. 
voire bonheur. 

4. Do not believe, my dear children, that in placing before your 

en mettre sous 
eyes a picture of the dangers of the world, my intention is 

art. tableau m. — subj.-l 

to prohibit you every kind of pleasure. God forbid. 

interdire espdce f. a neplaire subj.-l art. 

Pleasure is necessary to man ; without it, our existence would 

art. hi 

be dreadful ; | and therefore [ Providence, always attentive to 

affreux aussi art. 

our wants, has multiplied its sources in ourselves and 

besoin en t-elle * art. en 

around us. But, in tasting the pleasures of the world, never | give 
hors de en gouter se 

yourselves up | to them | entirely. Take care that they do not 

livrer y * avoir 

govern you ; know how to quit them, the moment they 

dominer savoir * * 2 1 de que 

have | too much | empire over you. It is the only way to 

prendre ind.-7 trop de ce de 

enjoy voluptuously that delicious pleasure that we cannot find 

avec volupte de 
but in ourselves, and which has its source in a just and pure 
que en dans droit 2 3 

conscience. Ah ! why cannot I give you all my experience ? Why 

— f . 1 que — ■ f. 

cannot you read like me in the abyss of hearts ? With what 

abime art. 
astonishment would you not often see chagrin, agitation, and 

art. — m. art. — 
trouble, disguised under the appearance of joy and 
art. — m. deguise sous apparence pi. art. pr. art. 

calmness ; hatred and envy, hid under the air of con- 
calme m. art. f. art. f. cache art. con- 

fidence and friendship ; indifference and egotism, af- 

Jiance f. pr. art. art. art. egoisme 



318 RECAPITULATION. 

fecting the most lively interest ; the most dreadful and 

vif art. -adv. 

perfidious plots contrived coolly and in the dark ; in a 

trame f. pi. ourdi de sangfroid tenebres f. pi. 

word, the most odious vices endeavouring to show themselves 

2 art. 1 s'efforcer de 

under the features of their opposite virtues. In the 

traits qui leur etre oppose 2 art. 1 

world, there is but one spring ; that is self-interest. 

ne que seul mobile m. ce art. personnel 2 1 
Towards that every action is directed ; every 

c'est a lui que art. pi, se rapporter (by the active) 

thing tends to that as to its object. I know very well, my dear 

lui Jin f. savoir 

children, that your hearts will not be infected by this vice. The 

de 

sentiments of universal benevolence with which I | have always | 

2 bienveillance 1 ne point cesser de 

inspired you, and of which 1 have seen you give [ so many | proofs, 

inf.-l tant de preuve 

| remove beforehand every fear | I could have | upon that subject ; 

rassurer d'avance 2 me 1 sur point m. 

but will you not yield to others not less dangerous ? Cruel idea ! 
de non f. 

terrible uncertainty ! If this misfortune were to happen, ah ! my 
affreux f. * * arriver ind.-2 

dear children, instead of being the joy and consolation of my 

art. — f. 

life, you would be the torment, the shame, and the disgrace | of it. [ 

13 4 5 opprobre en 2 

You would empoison my days, and you would. bring death 

empoisonner porter art. f. 

into the very bosom which gave you life. But whither is 
meme 2 sein m. 1 ind -3 art. oil * 

my tenderness for you carrying me ? No, my children, no, I have 
emporter non 

nothing to fear, you love me too much to | be willing | to afflict 

* pour voidoir * 

me so cruelly ; and I shall have the pleasure, | as long as | I live, of 

tant que ind. -7 
seeing you walk in the ways of honour and virtue, 
inf.-l art art. 



PART II. 



THE SYNTAX. 

Syntax is the regular construction of the different 
parts of speech, conformably to the rules of gram- 
mar and the genius of a language. 

Construction supposes three things in every 
tongue : the choice of words 5 their concord, and their 
arrangement i these objects will be found fully ex- 
plained in the following rules. 

As words may be considered both in their general 
and particular construction, we will divide the 
Syntax into two parts, viz. the General and the 
Particular. 



GENERAL SYNTAX. 
CHAPTER I. 

§1- 
OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

In the etymological part of this grammar, p-90, 
it has been observed that proper names had no 
plural, which number belongs only to common 
names ; however, there are some of these that are 
never used in the plural. 

1st. The names of metals, considered in them- 
selves and in their original state, as or, gold ; 
platine, platina. 



320 



GENEItni. SYNTAX 



2ndly. The names of virtues and vices, as cnas- 
tete, chastity ; ivrognerie, drunkenness, 

3rdly. Some words relating to man, either in a 
physical or moral sense, as route, hearing ; I'odorat, 
smelling ; le sang, blood ; sommeil, sleep ; pauvrete, 
poverty. 

4thly. The infinitive of verbs and adjectives used 
substantively, when usage does not allow them to 
be accompanied by an adjective, as le lever, rising ; 
le coucher, setting ; le beau, the beautiful ; le vrai, 
the true, and a few others which cannot be reduced 
to any particular class. 

The following substantives have commonly no 
plural, or are generally used in the singular. 



Vabsinthe 


wormwood 


le miel 


honey 


Vartillerie 


artillery- 


la mollesse 


effeminacy 


le courroux 


wrath 


la noblesse 


nobility 


la disettp 


scarcity 


le pourpre 


red fever 


Venfance 


infancy 


le prochain • 


our neighbour 


Vestime 


esteem 


la renommee 


fame 


Vencens 


incense 


le repos 


rest 


t eucharistie 


eucharist 


le salut 


salvation 


la f aim 


hunger 


la soif 


thirst 


la gloire 


glory 


la vieillesse 


old age 


lajeunessc 


youth 


la viriiite 


manhood 


le lait 


milk 






Some others have no s 


ingular, as : 




les accordailles 


espousals 


les con fins 


the confines 


les annales 


annals 


les decombres 


\ rubbish 


les ancetres 


ancestors 


les depens 


cost 


les armoiries 


coat of arms 


les ecrouelles 


the king's evil 


les arrerages 


arrears 


les entraves 


shackles 


les arrhes 


earnest-money 


les entraiUes 


bowels 


les atours 


elegant dress 


les fiancaiUes 


betrothing 


les bestiaux 


cattle 


lesfrais 


expenses 


les broussailles 


briars 


les funer allies 


funerals 


les calendes 


calends 


les gens 


people 


les catacombes 


catacombs 


les mater iaux 


materials 


les ciseaux 


scissars 


les mocurs 


manners 



OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 



321 



Us mouchettes 
les munitions 
les obseques 
les pleurs 
les proches 



snuffers 

ammunition 

obsequies 

tears 

relations 



les premiers 
les represaiUes 
les vivres 
les tenebres 



first-fruits 
reprisals 
victuals 
darkness 



les mathematiques mathematics 



The following substantives are spelt alike both 
in the singular and plural number. 



as 
avis 

abatis 

absces 
ais 

ablais 

acces 

anus 

has 

biais 

bo is 

bras 

brebis 

buis 

cabas 

canevas 

cas 

cens 

cervelas 

chamois 

choix 

croix 

cliquetis 

clos 

commis 

compromis 

creux 

courroux 

corps 

cours 

chassis 

debours 

debris 

dais 



ace 
advice 

{the cutting off 
tree branches 
abscess 
board 

{corn cut, and 
still lying 
access 
anus 

stockings 
bias 
wood 
arm 
sheep 
box tree 
a frail 
canvas 
case 

quit-rent 
kind of sausage 
wild-goat 
choice 
cross 

{clashing of 
swords 
small enclosure 
clerk 

compromise 
hollow 
wrath 
body 
course 
sash, frame 
money advanced 
waste 
canopy 





^estimate of 


devis 


< building ex- 




(. penses 


excis 


excess 


flux 


flux 


fis 


son 


fonds 


funds 


fracas 


crash 


faix 


burden 


faux 


scythe 


qlas 


tolling of a bell 


^gens 


people 


gdehis 


plash 


hautbois 


hautboy 


houx 


holly 


hachis 


hash 


jus 


juice 


legs 


legacy 


lambris 


wainscot 


laquais 


footman 


lis 


lily 


matelas 


mattress 


mois 


month 


mors 


horse-bit 


mepris 


contempt 


mets 


J dish, dressed 
\ meats, etc. 


noix 


walnut 


nez 


nose 


OS 


bone 


ours 


a bear 


pas 


step 


puits 


a well 


paix 


peace 


palais 


palace 


pays 


country 


panaris 


whitlow 



p2 



322 



GENERAL SYNTAX 



panais 


parsnip 


sour is 


mouse 


paradis 


paradise 


sucds 


success 


prix 


price 


sursis 


delay 


pais 


pea 


sens 


sense 


poids 


weight 


sur/aux 


over-assessmen 


poix 


pitch 


taffetas 


taffeta 


poids 


pulse 


tadlis 


copse 


pis 


udder 


tarn is 


a seive 


pus 


matter 


tapis 


carpet 


prods 


law- suit 


(as 


a heap 


propos 


words 


taux 


rate 


rabais 


fall 


temps 


time 


rebus 


rebus, pun 


tiers 


;hird 


refus 


refusal 


toux 


cough 


rlz 


rice 


tracas 


bustle 


ris 


laughter 


travers 


breadth 


rela is 


relay 


treillis 


sackcloth 


reflux 


reflux 


trepas 


death 


remords 


remorse 


vernis 


varnish 


rendez-vous 


appointment 


vers 


verse, poetry 


repas 


repast 


vis 


screw 


repos 


rest 


voix 


voice 


ruhte 


ruby 







§ II. OF COMPOUND NOUNS. 

Formation of their Plural. 

Rule I. When a word. is compound of a substan- 
tive and an adjective, both take the mark of the 
plural, as 

Singular Plural 

un gentil-homme a nobleman des gentils-hommes 
un arc-boutant a buttress des arcs-boutans 

The adjective demi is an exception, as des demi- 
dieux, des demUlivres. 

Rule II. When a word is composed of a substan- 
tive and a pronoun, both take the mark of the 
plural, as 



Singular 




Plural 


Monsieur 


Sir 


Messieurs 


Madame 


Madam 


Mesdames 


Mademoiselle 


Miss 


MesdemoiseUes 



OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 323 

Rule III. When a word is composed of two 
substantives not separated by a preposition, both 
take also the mark of the plural, as 

Singular Plural 

un garde-marine a midshipman des gardes-marines 

un garde-role Master of the Rolls des gardes-roles 

N. B. — When the word garde relates to persons, 
it is not derived from a verb, and consequently 
takes the mark of the plural ; but if it relates to 
things, as un garde-manger, a larder, neither of the 
two substantives takes the mark of the plural, we 
say des garde-manger. 

Rule IV. When a word is composed of two sub- 
stantives separated by a preposition, the first only 
takes the mark of the plural, as 

Singular Plural 

un arc-en-ciel a rainbow des arcs-en-ciel 

un chef-d'oeuvre a masterpiece des chefs-d'oeuvre 

Rule V. When a word is composed of a substan- 
tive and a verb, or a preposition, the substantive 
alone takes the mark of the plural, as 

Singular Plural 

un avant-coureur a forerunner des avant-eoureurs 

un essuie-maitis a towel des essuie-mains 

Un passe-partout, a master-key, being composed 
of a verb and an adverb, does not take the mark of 
the plural, we say des passe-partout. 

EXERCISE ON SUBSTANTIVE AND COMPOUND TENSES. 

Gold is the most pure, the most precious, the most 
art. parfait 

ductile, and after platina, the heaviest of all metals. Chastity 

pesant art. 

is an obligation of all times, all ages, and all conditions. 
* art. pr. art. pr. art. etat m. pi. 

Intoxication, which proceeds from beer, is of longer duration 
art. ivresse venir art. 



324 GENERAL SYNTAX 

thai: that which proceeds from wine. It is the sense of 

art. ce art 

feeling, which teaches to guard against the errors of sight, 
toucher apprendre se garantir de art. 

Sleep is the image of death. Early learn 

art. art. de bonne heure 2 apprendre 1 

to distinguish truth from falsehood* That is more bitter than 
— guer art. vrai art. faux amer 

wormwood. Dignity of mind was formerly 

de art. absinthe art. elevation art. sentiment m. pi. ind.-2 

the (distinguishing mark of) noblemen. One of the but- 
ce qui * distinguer art. arc- 

tresses of the vault has fallen. He is always making 
boutant m. pi. tomber * fait de art. 

{cock and bull stories.) The Tartars always form the scouts 
coq-d-Vdne m. pi Tartare etre avant-courevr 

of an army. The fish-carriers did not arrive in time. This 
m. pi. chasse-maree m. pi. ind -3 a 

door is only fastened with a latch; and all (the persons) 

ne que fermer a * art. loquet m. * ceux 

in the house have each their key. 

de passe-partout m. 



CHAPTER II. 

§ I. 

OF THE ARTICLE. 

We have already stated in speaking of the article, 
(p. 95), that French grammarians generally admit 
but of one article divided into simple and compound, 
and un m. une f., a, an, which we call the indefinite 
article, is nothing but the compound article used in 
an indefinite sense; however, as foreigners are 
sometimes at a loss how to translate it into French, 
we shall endeavour to remove that difficulty by the 
following explanation. 



OF THE ARTICLE. 325 

When A or An is to be Suppressed or Expressed in 
French. 
A or an preceded by the verb to be, is suppressed 
in French when the sense of the word to which a 
or an relates, is not extended by some other expla- 
natory words following it, as 

Je suis Frangais I am a Frenchman 

Vous etes Anglaise You are an Englishwoman 

but if the sense of the proposition is developed by 
additional words following the substantive, then a 
or an must be expressed, as 

Je suis un Frangais d'une illustre I am a Frenchman of an illus- 

famule trious family 

Je suis une princesse tres-mal- I am a very unfortunate princess 

heureuse 

A or an is likewise expressed in French when the 
verb etre is preceded by the demonstrative ce, as 
c est un trisor pour safamille, he is a treasure to his 
family. 

Before substantives expressing the quality of a 
preceding noun, a, an is not expressed, as le Due 
d'York, prince du sang, the Duke of York, a 
prince of the blood. 

N. B. — The above observation applies also to the 
definite article the, as Telemaque^ Jils d Ulysse^ roi 
d'ltaque, Telemachus, the son of Ulysses, king of 
Ithaca. 

EXERCISE ON THE ARTICLE. 

I am a Frenchman and a merchant ; after having (been at) the 

negotiant inf.-l parcouru 

most famous (trading towns) in the Levant, my commercial con- 

= echelle f. pi. — m. les affaires de mon 

cerns have brought me here. I am an unhappy Frenchman 

commerce conduire 

who, a striking example of the vicissitudes of fortune, seek 
* memorable 2 1 — art. chercher 



326 



GENERAL SYNTAX 



an asylum where I may end my clays in peace. He was a man 

asile m. puisse finir ce 

of uncommon probity and of tried virtue ; (as a) reward 

un rare 2 f. 1 un eprouve 2 1 pour le recompenser 

for the services he had rendered to the church and state, 

de que m. pi. eglise pr. art. 

the king has made him a bishop. Neoptolemus had hardly told 

eveque Neoptoleme eut a peine dit 
me, that he was a Greek, when I (cried out) : O enchanting 

que s'ecrier ind.-3 doux 

words, after so many years of silence and unceasing 

parole f. pi. de sans consolation 2 pr- 

pain ! O my son, what misfortune, what storm, or rather what 

1 malheur m. tempete f. plutot 

propitious wind has brought you hither to end my woes ? He 
favorable 2 I conduire pour mal m. pi. 

replied, I am of the island of Scyros, I am returning thither ; 
repondre ind.-3 He retoumer y 

(I am said) (to be) the son of Achilles. 

on dit que ind.-l 

§ n. 

The following table, in which the same words are 
exhibited, with and without the article, as well as 
the sentences at the end of this grammar, will show 
that constant practice will be found the best master. 

COMPARATIVE TABLE. 



WITH THE ARTICLE. 

The writings of Cicero are full 

of the soundest 2 ideas 1 
Divest yourself of the prejudices 

se defaire prejuge 

of childhood 
The different kinds of animals 

that are upon the earth 
He enters into a detail of the 

rules of a good grammar 
He affects circumlocutions 
chercher de detour 



WITHOUT THE ARTICLE. 

The writings of Cicero are full 

of sound 2 ideas 1 

Have no prejudice (with regard 
to) this question. 
sur 

There are different kinds of ani- 
mals upon the earth 

He enters into a long detail of 
frivolous 2 rules 1 

He affects long 1 circumlocutions 
2 in order to explain the sim- 
plest 2 things 1 



OF THE ARTICLE. 



3'27 



WITH THE ARTICLE. 

He loads his memory with the 

verses of Virgil and the phrases 

of Cicero 
Essays supported by strong 2 

discours soutenu 

expressions 1 
He has collected precepts of mo- 
recueillir sur 

rality 

mceurs pi. 
Make use of the tokens we 

se servir signe (dont) 

agreed upon. 

etre convenu 
The choice of studies, proper, etc. 

Knowledge has always been 
connaissance pi. 

the object of the esteem, the 

praise, and the admiration of 

eloge pi. 

men 
The riches of the mind can only 

(be acquired) by study 

ne que s'acquerir 
The gifts of fortune are uncertain 

fragiles 
The connexion of proofs makes 
enchalnement preuve 

them please and persuade 
qu'eUes 
It is by meditation upon what 

we read, that we acquire fresh 

2 knowledge 1 

connaissance pi. 
The advantages of memory 

The memory of facts is the most 
showy 
brillant 
The aim of good masters should 
devoir 
be to cultivate the mind and 
ind.-l de 
reason of their pupils 



WITHOUT THE ARTICLE. 

He loads his memory with in- 
sipid 3 verses 1 and phrases 2 

Essays supported by lively 1 ex- 
vive 
pressions 2 
A collection of precepts hi morals 
* recueil sur 



We are obliged to use some ex- 
terior 2 signs 1, in order to 
make ourselves understood 
nous entendre 

He has made a choice of boohs 
which are, etc. 

It is an object of esteem, of 

ce 

praise, and admiration 



There is in Peru a prodigious 
le Perou 
abundance of useless 2 riches I 

Gifts of fortune 

JBien 

There is in this book an admi- 
rable connexion of solid 2 
proofs 1 

It is by meditation that we ac- 
quire fresh 1 knowledge 2 
nouveau 

There are different kinds of me- 

mory 
He has only a memory of facts 



He has an air of pedantry that 
ton m. maitre 
shocks you at first sight 
abord 



328 



GENERAL SYNTAX 



WITH THE ARTICLE. 



The taste of mankind is liable to 
homme pi. 

great changes 
He has no need of the lessons you 

wish to give him 
France, Spain, England, etc. 

The Island of Japan 
He comes from China 
He arrives from America 
The extent of Persia 

He is returned from the East 
Indies, from Asia, etc. 

He lives in Peru, in Japan, in 
a 
the Indies, in Jamaica, etc. 

The politeness of France 

The circumference of England 

The interest of Spain 

The invention of printing is at- 
tributed to Germany 

He comes from French Flanders 



WITHOUT THE ARTICLE. 



Society of chosen 2 men 1 



He has no need of lessons 
avoir besoin 

Kingdom of France, of Spain, of 
England, etc. 

Island of Candia 

He comes from Poland 

He arrives from Italy 

He is gone to Persia 
en 

He is returned from Spain, 
from Persia, etc. 

He lives in Italy, in France, in 
London, in Avignon, etc. 
a 

The fashions of France 

The horses of England 

The wines of Spain 

The empire of Germany is divi- 
ded into a great number of 
states 

He comes from Flanders 



§iii. 

On Measure, Weight, etc. 

Instead of the indefinite article a or an, before 
nouns of measure, weight, and purchase, as, wheat 
is sold for a crown a bushel ; butter sells for six- 
pence a pound ; wine sold yesterday for forty 
crowns a hogshead, 'tis more than a groat a bottle ; 
the French use the definite article, as le Me se vend 
tin ecu le boisseau; le beurre se vend six sous la 
livre ; le vin se vendit hier quarante ecus le muid, 
dest plus de quatre sous la bouteille. 

If relating to time, a or an is expressed by the 
preposition par, as tant par semaine 9 so much a 
week. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 329 

hen the pronoun quel is used to express admi- 
ation the indefinite article is never expressed, as 
quelle beaute ! what a beauty ! 

When the adverbs more and less are repeated to 
express a comparison, they must be preceded by the 
article, as the more difficult a thing is, the more 
honourable it is; in French, the article is omitted, 
as plus une chose est difficile, plus elle est honorable. 

exercise on Measure, etc. 

Corn sells for eight shillings a bushel. Veal and 

art. ble m. se vendre * schelling boisseau art. veau 

mutton cost ten pence a pound. This lace is sold at half 
art. couter sou livre f. f. se vendre * demi 2 

a guinea an ell. The best French wines are sold at from eight 
1 f. aune de France 2 1 ind.-l 

to ten shillings a bottle. My father goes to Ireland four or 

bouteillet va en Irlande 

five times a year. He gives his son seven shillings a day. It (is 

fois an a 2 

necessary), if you desire to (improve fast), that you should 
falloir 1 * faire des pr ogres rapides 3 

take a lesson three times a week. The more I contemplate 
preniez * 

those precious remains of antiquity, the more I am struck with 
= reste m. pi. art. = frappe de 

wonder. What a beautiful morning ! come, let us go and 
etonnement matinee f. 

walk into the fields. 
se promener champ m. pi. 



CHAPTER III. 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



French adjectives, as it may be seen page 109, 
agree in gender and number with the substantives 
which they qualify, and generally follow ; this rule, 



330 



GENERAL SYNTAX 



though a general one, suffers the three following 
exceptions, demi, nu, and feu, which agree with 
their substantives according to their being placed 
before or after them. 

When demi and nu precede the noun, they are 
undeclined, and when they follow it, they agree 
with it. 

EXAMPLES. 

After 



Before 

une demi-livre half a pound 
une demi-heure half an hour 
un demi-cent half a hundred 



,. . , • Tone pound and 
une livre et demie < h if 

deux Jieures «<j half past two 

demie > r 

trois cents et demie 300 and a half 



nu-p 
nu-tete 



les pieds nus 
la fete nue 



bare feet 
bare head 



Feu is unchangeable when preceding the article, 
but it is declined when following it, as feu la reine 
and lafeue reine, the late queen. 

N.B. — Demi in the above examples, agrees with 
the substantive, but only in gender. 

When the adjectives has, low ; bon, good ; court, 
short, are taken adverbially, they remain undeclined 
(see p. 299, on the adverb.) 

§i. 

Agreement of the Adjective with the last Substantive. 

When an adjective or a past participle is applied 
to qualify several substantives, it may agree with 
the last, especially if they are nearly synonymous. 

EXAMPLES. 

he has an absolute power and 
authority 

he found the ponds and rivers 
frozen over 

he has afforded, in the examina- 
tion of that concern, an asto- 
nishing proof of judgment 
and application 



il a un pouvoir et une autorite ab- 

solue 
il trouva les etangs et les rivieres 

glacees 
il a apporte, dans Vexamen de cette 

affaire, un discernement et une 

application etonnante 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 331 

In this last sentence the adjective agrees with the 
substantive application as being the last v/ord to 
which the attention of the mind seems to be more 
particularly directed. 

§n. 

Adjectives or Participles separated from their 
Substantives. 

When an adjective or participle refers to several 
substantives either animate or inanimate, but sepa- 
rated from them, it is always put in the plural femi- 
nine if the substantives are feminine, and in the 
plural masculine if the substantives are masculine 
or of different genders. 

EXAMPLES. 

la rose et la tulipe sont egales en the rose and the tulip are equal 

beaute in beauty 

son courage et sa hardiesse me his courage and boldness seem 

paraissent etonnans astonishing to me 

exercise on the Adjective. 

He ran through the streets like a madman, bare-foot and bare- 
ind.-2 * rue f. pi. 

headed. His legs were bare. Give me half a guinea, and 

tete il * art. jambef. 2 avoir I 

then you (will only owe) me a guinea and a half. I shall be at 
* ne devoir plus que chez- 

home in half an hour. Come before half past one. The late 

moi dans 2 une heure et 1 2 1 

queen was idolized. The late queen was universally regretted. 

hid. -3 adore 
His impetuosity and courage, long restrained, soon surmounted 

pron. enchaine ind.-3 

all obstacles. The imagination and genius of Ariosto, 

art. art. VArioste 

although irregular in their course, yet interest, (hurry along). 
quoique marche neanmoins attacher entralner 

and captivate the reader, who can never be tired of admiring them. 
lecteur se lasser inf.-l 



332 GENERAL SYNTAX 

There are in Gessner's idylls sentiments and a grace 

2 art. idijlle 1 de art. 

altogether affecting. The good taste of the Egyptians (from that 
tout-a-fait touchant des 

time) made them love solidity and unadorned regularity. In 

lors ind.-3 leur art. = tout nu 2 =1 

those climates, the dry and the rainy monsoons divide the 
sec pluvieux mousson f. pi. se diviser 

year. 
annee 

§ Hi. 

Adjectives of Dimension, showing the difference of 
construction between the English and French 
languages. 

1. In French, the word which expresses dimen- 
sion is placed first, if it be an adjective, and the 
preposition de is added to it as a regimen ; as une 
tour haute de deux cents pieds, a tower two hundred 
feet high. But if the word which expresses dimen- 
sion or measure be a substantive or an adjective 
used substantively, it is put the last in the sentence, 
with the preposition de repeated either before the 
noun of measure or dimension, and numerical ad- 
jectives, as 

une tour de deux cents pieds de haut a tower two hundred feet high 

or de hauteur 
une table de six pieds de long or a table six feet long 

longueur 

2. The French make use of the verb avoir when 
there are two constructions, as 

les murs d' Alger ont douze pieds d'epaisseur et trente de hauteur 

or 
les murs d' Alger ont douze pieds d'epaisseur sur tiente de hauteur 
the walls of Algiers are twelve feet thick and thirty feet high 

3. In comparative sentences to express difference, 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 333 

the English sentence is often construed thus : she 
is taller than her sister by the whole head; but in 
French we say : elle est plus grande que sa soeur de 
toute la tele. 

exercise on the Difference of Construction. 

This trunk, which is six feet long, is very convenient. You will be stopped in 
coffre m. commode arrets 

your march by a river three hundred feet broad. This observatory, which is twelve 

f. = 

hundred feet high, is very proper for knowing the true position of the stars. It 

inf.-l astre m. pi. ce 

is a terrace a hundred and eighty feet broad, and twelve hundred feet long. The 
terrace f. large 

walls of our garden are twenty feet high and three broad. It is one of the finest 
mur m. pi. 

stones that was ever seen ; it is twenty feet long and six thick. This ditch 

on ait jamais vices longueur epaisseur fosse 1 m. 

is nine feet six inches deep and six feet broad. My son is taller than 

ponce m. pi. profondeur f. 
yours by two inches. 

§IV. 

Regimen of the Adjectives. 

There are some adjectives in French which have 
no signification but when followed by another word 5 
as pret a, ready to ; capable de, capable of. 

Rule. — To join a noun to an adjective that pre- 
cedes it, we put de or a between that adjective and 
the noun ; then the noun is called the regimen of the 
adjective. 

EXAMPLES. 

digne de recompense worthy of reward. 

content de son sort satisfied with his lot 

utile a rhomme useful to man 

propre a la guerre fit for war 

Recompense is the regimen of the adjective digne, 
because it is joined to that adjective by the word de. 
Uhomme is the regimen of the adjective utile, because 
it is joined to that adjective by the word a. 



334 GENERAL SYNTAX. 

exercise on the Regimen of the Adjectives. 
Virtuous men are always worthy of esteem. A weak mind is liable to 
art. veriueux 2 1 tovjours estime f. faible 2 1m. sujet 

many contradictions. A heart free from cares enjoys the greatest possible 
Men des — f pi. cceur m. Ubre de soin m. pi. jouit de 1 — 3 

felicity. Voltaire was always greedy of praise, and insatiable of glory, 
= f. 2 — fat avide louange f. pi. — — 

Rousseau, endowed with a strong and fiery imagination, was all his (life-time) 

— done de fort 2 bouillant 3 — f. 1 vie f. 

subject to frequent fit? of misanthropy, and liable to all the variations 
enclin a de — acces m. pi. = sujet — f. pi. 

attendant upon it. 
qui en sont la suite 



RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE ON THE ARTICLE AND THE ADJECTIVE. 

The young Orphan in England. 
orpheline f. 

Though scarcely twenty-three years old, Clotilda B— , a young and interesting 

* 2 agedef.l —de * 

orphan, displays, in her features and in her whole appearance, profound grief 

deceler m&.-l 2 1 ensemble m. 3 art. 1 

and sadness, which has had but (too great an effect) upon her feeble and 

art. 2 ne * que trop influe' 

languishing health. Unhappily for her, her early education was committed to 

premier 2 — f . 1 
the hands (of strangers.) (Brought up,) from the age of thirteen or fourteen years, 
des itrangeres eleve'e des a 

in the midst of a large town, among a class of people whom she did not 

ville f. une sociite de gens * 

know, the timid and tender Clotilda soon saw herself surrounded on all 
ind.-2 3 voir ind.-3 2 1 de 

sides with perils and dangers, which so often prove fatal to innocence. Her 

e'cueil m. pi. pr. * * 

modest countenance, her simple and open manners, together with her immovable 
maintien m. 2 naif 3 1 jointes a immuable 

attachment to the religion of her ancestors, fortified her against the 

primunir ind.-3 
seduction and scandal of bad examples. Thus nothing could shake the firm 

art. des aussi ibranler 

resolution which she had taken of remaining faithful and constant to her duties. 

— f. prise inf.-l 

A resigned victim to her unhappy fate, she suffers without daring to 
* 2 = f . 1 sort m. oser inf.-l * 

complain: and (it is only) in secret, and (undercover) of night, that she can 
se plaindre ce rC est qiC a la faveur art. nuit f. 

give free course to her sobs and sighs. "Happy, a thousand times 

art. = m. sanglot pi. prep. pro. soupirs. * f>is 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 335 

happy," cried she, "the girl who has never been, like me, deprived of 
ind.-2 Ulle f. n' jamais comme moi priver inf.-3 

(a mother's) tenderness and solicitude! Death then seemed to 

maternel 3 art. 1 pr. art = f. 2 art morti. sembler ind.-2 2 * 

me desirable; and, (once only, 1 — I still shudder when I think (of 
1 digne d'envie ane seide fois encore 2 fremir ind.-l 1 

it. — in the paroxysm of my grief and despair, I had the 

y acces m. douleur f. prep. pron. dhespoir 

weakness to call it to my aid, to deliver me (from the) torments 

faiblesse f. de 2 f. 1 secours m. pour =2 1 des 

and the moral tortures to which I was subjected : cruel that it is, it 
des 2 — f. pi. 1. auxquelles en proie art. f. * 

stopped its ears, and let me cry on. But my last 

se toucher ind.-3 les oreiUes laisser ind.-3 2 1 crier mf.-l * 

hour had not yet struck; and (next day,) as usual, 

heure f. rC etre ind.-2 sonne le lendemain comme a V ordinaire 

I awoke amid tears and groans." 

m'eveiUai dans art. larme pi. art. gemissement pi. 
Clotilda was in her eighteenth year, when she thought, for a 
ind.-2 anndef. lorsque croire ind.-3 * 

moment, that she perceived an end of her long sufferings : false security I 

— m. * * apercevoir inf.-l a, = f. 

dangerous illusion! This glimmeiing of hope, alas! was only the 

— f. lueur f. n' in d.- 2 que 

forerunner of the storm which threatened her. She who ought to 

avant-coureur m. orage menacer ind.-2 2 1 celle ind.-2 * 

(have been; a second mother to her, and who had misled her with the 

ctre inf.-l 2 pour 1 seduite par 

vain hope of a brilliant future, (was not ashamed) to let unjust and inju- 
fol espoir avenir m. n'eut pas honte de 2 

rious suspicions hover over her conduct, though irreproachable. Then, 

soupgon m. pi. planer sur = f. 1 

under the pretence of making her expiate a fault which she had not (been 

* inf.-l 2 lui 1 a 

willing) to commit, she sends her away from the town, to a kind of 
voulu * envoyer ind.-l hors de dans * * 

boarding-school, where, during two years of strict captivity, (according to) 
maison d'education d' une = f. d'apres 

her barbarous orders, all communication is denied her with the persons 

2 = pi. 1 2 interdite 3 1 

who (might have) afforded her any consolation. At length, restored 

pouvoir ind.-2 apporUr inf.-l soulagement m. 

to liberty and to her afflicted family, Providence, whose designs are 

art = f. desole 2 = f. 1 art. — f. dont art. dessein pi. 

impenetrable, has allowed (her to land on) this hospitable island, where she 

qu'elle aborddt dans hospitalier 

lives peaceably (on the) fruit of her labour, surrounded with the attentions 

du tfavail m. entoure de * prevenance pi. 

and the regard due to misfortune and persecuted virtue, 

pr. * cgard pi, art. infortune f. pr. art. 2 = f. 1 



336 GENERAL SYNTAX 

CHAPTER IV. 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 

§ I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Their various functions in the Speech. 

Personal pronouns have the three functions 
which we have remarked in substantives, but with 
this difference, that some are always in subject, 
two only used in apostrophe, some others always in 
regimen, and lastly others, sometimes in subject 
and sometimes in regimen. 

Those which are always in subject are je, tu, il, 
Us, asje parte, tujoues, il aime, Us samusent. 

The two which are used in apostrophe are tot and 
vous, either by themselves or preceded by the inter- 
jection O ! — (See p. 421 , particular syntax of the 
Pronoun.) 

Personal Pronouns acting as Subjects. 

Rule. — When personal pronouns act as subjects, 
the person who speaks always names himself last, 
and the person addressed is generally named first. 

EXAMPLES. 

vous et moi nous irons a la campagne you and I will go into the country 
nous irons ce soir a la promenade, we will take a walk this evening, 
vous, votrefrere, et moi you, your brother, and I 

For the pronouns of the third person, il 9 Us, elle, 
elleS) see p. 130. 

EXERCISE. 

My sister and I were walking by the last rays of the 

nous * ind.-2 a rayons m. pi. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 



337 



setting sun, and we were saying, what a mild splendour does it 
couchant 2 1 * disions eclat m. * 2 

still spread over all nature ! In the long winter even- 
pas 3 4 ne repand 1 art. de 2 soi- 
ings, my father, my brothers, and I used (to spend) two 
ree f. pi. 1 nous passer ind.-2 
hours in the library, and to read there, (in order to) (un- 

bibliotheque f. nous lisons y pour 

bend oar minds) from the serious studies of the day, those amiable 

se delasser =21 2 

poets who interest most the heart, by the charms of a lively ima- 

1 le plus riant 2 

gination, and make us love truth, by disguising it under the 
1 art. en deguiser inf. -3 

mask of an ingenious fiction. You and your friend shall ac- 
trait m. pi. = 2 f . 1 

company me to the museum, where we shall study nature in her 
— pagner musee m. ou 

three kingdoms. 
regne m. pi. 

Pronouns used Objectively. 

Rule I. — The pronouns me, te 9 se, ltd, leur, le, la 9 
les, y, and en, are generally placed before the verbs ; 
also nous, vons, lux, without a preposition. 



EXAMPLES. 



U me dit 
je le vois 
je les ecoute 

Us se blessent 

je lui parle 



he tells me 

1 see him 

I listen to them 

{they hurt 
themselves 
I speak to him 



il nous aime he loves us 

vous la craignez you fear her 

j'y songerai I will think of it 

•, • • f I am ravished 
/en suis ravi 



{I am r 
at it 



(As soon as) he had explained tows the maxims of Socrates, 
Des que expliquer ind.-5 * Socrate 

he said : You see that it is not without reason he (is looked 

ind.-3 ce que on le regarde 

upon) as truly wise. He was continually saying to me : yet a 

un vrai ind,-2 * 

Jittle patience, and you will disarm even envy itself. You 
de desarmer * art. 

Q 



338 GENERAL SYNTAX 

have, no doubt, (some foundation) for reproaching him with his 
etre sans doute fonde a inf.-l hi de * 

faults ; but is there (any man) on earth that is exempt 
art. m. pi. quelqu'un art. qui subj.-l 

{from them) ? To please her, you must never flatter her. To aban- 

en Pour lui * * 

don one's self to metaphysical abstractions, is to plunge into 

des metaphysique 2 — 1 ce * sejeter 
an unfathomable abyss. 

satis fond 2 abime m. 1. 

Rule II. — Moi, toi, soi, nous, vous, lui, eux, elle, 
and elles are placed after verbs when preceded by 
a preposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

cela depend de moi that depends-on me 

je pense a toi I think of thee 

on s'occupe trop de soi We are too attentive to our- 

selves 
que dites-vous d'eux What do you say of them 

EXERCISE. 

My father loved me so tenderly, that he thought of none but 

ind.-2 penser ind.-2 a ne que 

me, (was wholly taken up) with me, and saw none but me in the 

ne s'occuper ind.-2 que de ind -2 

universe. If you wish to obtain that favour, you must speak to him 

de * 

himself. It depended on you to excel your rivals, but you 

ind.-2 de de Vemporter sur 

would not. Philip, father of Alexander, being ad- 

le vouloir ind.-4 Philippe 2 comme on con 

vised to expel from his dominions a man, who (had been 

seillait a 1 de chasser etat m. pi. 

speaking) ill of him ; I shall take care not to do that, said he, 
parler ind.-6 se garder bien * * * en ind. -3 

he would go and slander me every where. 
* medire de 

Mule III. — With the first and second persons plu- 
ral, and second person singular of the imperative 
affirmative, moi, toi, nous, vous, lui, leur, eux, elle 9 
elles, le, la, les, y, and en, are placed after verbs ; 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 339 

but with a negation, or in the third person singular 
or plural of the imperative, me, te, se, nous, vous, 
lui, leur, le, la, les, y and en are placed before the 
verb. 



EXAMPLES. 



Affirmative^ 
dites-moi tell me 

donnez-m'en give me some 

songez-y think of it 



Negative. 
ne me dites pas do not tell me 
ne w'en donnez do not give me 

point any 

riy songez point do not think of it 

Me, te ; moi, toi, between the Imperative and the 
Infinitive 

Between an imperative neuter and an infinitive 
active, me, te are used as being regimens of the 
infinitive only, as 

venez me parler come and speak to me (venez parler a moi) 
va te coucher go to bed (va coucher toi) 

but if the imperative belongs to an active verb, then 
toi, moi are used instead of te, me, as 

laissez-moi travailler let me work 

/ais-toi coiffer get thy hair dressed 

Observe that moi, toi, placed after the imperative 
and followed by the particle en, are changed into 
me, te, as 

donnez-m'en give me some | retourne-fen go back 

When two imperatives are joined together by the 
conjunctions et, ou, the second imperative may have 
its objective pronoun before it, as 

polissez-le sans cesse etle repollssez polish and repolish it continually 
gardez les ou les renvoyez keep them or send them back 

EXERCISE. 

Listen to me, do not condemn me without a hearing. Complain 
ecouter * * m'ecouter se plaindre 



340 GENERAL SYNTAX 

thou hast just cause of complaint; however, do not complain too 
un sujet plainte 

bitterly of the injustice of mankind. Give some. Do not 

amerement art. homme pi. 

give any. Think {of it). Do not think of it. 

y 

Rule IV\ — Should several pronouns accompany 
a verb, me, te, se, nous, vous, must be placed first ; 
le, la, les 9 before lui, leur, and y before en, which is 
always the last. 

EXAMPLES. 

pretez-moi ce livre ; je vous le ren- lend me that book ; I will return 
drai demain ; si vous me le it you to-morrow ; if you re- 
refusez,je saurai m'en passer fuse me, I can make shift 

without it 
aurez-vous la force de le leur dire ? will you have resolution enough 

to mention it to them ? 
il rCapas voulu vous y mener he will not take you there 

je vous y en porter ai I will bring you some there 

Exception. — With the imperative affirmative, le, 
la, les, are always placed first, as donnez-le-moi 9 
give it me ; offrez-la~lui, offer it to him ; conduisez- 
les-y, conduct them thither ; moi is placed after y, 
as menez-y-moi, take me thither ; but nous is placed 
before y, as menez~nous-y , take us thither. 

EXERCISE. 

You wish to make a present to your sister. (There is) a beau- 
vouloir * voila 

tiful fan ; you should present her with it. ( How many) 

evantail m. devoir cond. -2 offrir lui * que de 

people are there (destitute of) merit and without occupation, (who 
gens * * sans 

would be mere nothings) in society, did not gaming intro- 
ne tenir a rien cond.-l art. si art. jeu m. intro- 

duce them (into it). I shall speak to them (about it), and give 
duire ind -2 y en je rendre 

you a faithful account of it It is certain that old 

ind.-7 exact 2 compte m. 1 art. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 341 

Geronte has refused his daughter to Valere ; but because he does 
not give her to him, it does not follow that he will give her to 

s'ensuivre 
you. 

Observation. 

Mime is sometimes added to the pronouns moi 9 
toi, soi, nous, vous, eux, lui, elle, elles, in order to 
specify more particularly the person or thing: spoken 
of. 

EXAMPLES. 

Us se sont perdus eux-m ernes they have ruined themselves 

elles y sont allees elles-m ernes they went there by themselves 

je Vai vu moi-meme de mes propres I saw him myself with my own 

ye ax eyes 

§ii. 

Regimen of Relative Tronouns. 

We have seen (p. 141), that the relative qui in 
subject, relating either to persons or things, though 
unchangeable, always agrees with its antecedent, 
which it follows immediately, and the verb deter- 
mines its signification ; but when it is in regimen, 
it is expressed by que, do?it, de qui, duquel, de 
laquelle, des quels, desquelles, and even by de quoi. 

N. B. — Qui is always used as the subject of any 
verb, and que as the object of an active verb. 

Rule I. — Que, relative, is of the number and 
gender of its antecedent. 

EXAMPLES. 

c'est moi que Von demande it is I whom they ask for 

c'est toi qu'ora appelle it is thou whom they call 

laftinme queje vols si bien paree the woman whom I see so well 

dressed 

c'est nous que vous offensez it is we whom you offend 

vest vous queje cherche it is you I am seeking 

les dames que vous voyez the ladies whom you see 



342 GENERAL SYNTAX 

Dont is sometimes used instead of de qui, duquel, 
de laquelle, desquels, desquelles, and even de quoi. 

EXAMPLES. 

Vhomme dont vous parkz est parti the man of whom you are speak- 
ing is gone 
la tour dont nous apergevons les the tower whose battlements we 

creneaux doit etre trh-elevee perceived must be very high 

ce dont je vous ai parle V autre jour what I was speaking to you of 

rCa pas reussi the other day did not succeed 

Observations. 

1. That qui, que, and dont may apply to persons 
and things ; but qui preceded by a preposition never 
applies to things ; in this case lequel, duquel, 
auquel, etc. must be used. 

*2. Lequel, laquelle, etc. apply both to persons and 
things; but quoi applies only to things. — (See 
page 143.) 

EXERCISE. 

/ whom temptation surrounded on every side, I 

art. seduction f . environner ind. -2 de tout part f. pi. je 

fell into the snare. It is thou whom the public voice calls to 

tombai dans piege m. ce 2 f . 1 appeler 

that employ. A power which terror and force have 

place f. puissance f. art. = f. art. — f. 

founded, cannot be of long duration. It is we whom they perse- 
fonde f. ne peut duree f. Von pour- 

cute with unexampled rage. You whom every body 

suivre avec une sans exemple 2 fureur f. 1 tout le monde 

respects, hasten to (come forward), (Everything) in the uni- 
respecter se hater de paraitre tout dans uni- 

verse alters and perishes ; but the writings which genius has 
vers m s* alter er perir ecrit m. pi. art. genie m. 

dictated, shall be immortal. 
diets m. p3. —td 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 343 

§in. 

OF PRONOUNS ABSOLUTE. 

Quel, Oil, used Interrogatively . 

In interrogations, or after a verb, quel is used ta 
ask the name or qualities of a person or thing. 

EXAMPLE. 

quel homme est-ce ? what man is it ? 

quel temps fait-il ? what weather is it ? 

je ne sais quel homme c'est I don't know what man it is 

il salt quel parti prendre He knows what steps to pursue 

The adverb ou is employed as a relative pronoun, 
and also as a kind of absolute pronoun. 

Oit signifies en quel endroit, in what place, or a 
quoi, to what, 

EXAMPLES. 

ou allez-vous? where are you going? 

ou cela nous menera-t-il? where will that take us ? 

f ignore ou Ion me conduit I don't know where they are 

taking me 
il ria pas prevu ou cette cqnduite he did not foresee where such a 
le menerait conduct would lead him 

Remark I.- — Ou preceded by the preposition de, 
marks the place or cause spoken of. 

EXAMPLES. 

d'ch vient-il ? where does he come from ? 

d'ou sa haine procede-t-elle ? whence proceeds his hatred? 

voila d'ou. il vient it was there he came from 

le mat me vient d'ou fattendais the evil proceeds from that quar- 
mon remede ter whence I had expected a 

remedy 

Remark II. — Par ou signifies through what place, 
or by what means. 

EXAMPLES. 

par ou avez-vous passe"? which way did you come ? 



344 GENERAL SYNTAX 

par ou me tirerai-je daffaire ? which way shall I extricate my- 

self? 
voila par ou fed passe that is the way I came 

je ne sais par ou je me tireraid'qf- I don't know which way I shall 
/aire extricate myself 

These pronouns are only interrogative when at 
the beginning of a sentence, consequently the most 
proper name for them is that of pronouns absolute. 

EXERCISE. 

What grace, what delicacy, what harmony, what colouring, 

grace f. delicatesse f. = f. colons m. 

what beautiful lines in Racine ! What then must have been that 

vers m. — 1 done S doit 2 

extraordinary man, to whom seven cities contested the glory 
= 2 — se sont dispute — f. 

of having given birth ? He does not know what model to 

avoir donne art. jour m. * savoir modele m. * 

follow. I have told you what man it is. Which of those ladies 
suivre ce f. dames f. 

do you think the most amiable ? Choose which of those two pic- 
* 2 tr ouver 1 f. Choisir m. 4 5 6 Ma- 

tures you like best. Where am I? He knows not 

bleau m. 7 1 aimer 2 art. mieux 3 en savoir 

where he is. He is gone I don't know where. Where does he 
en alle ne savoir de * lui 

get that pride? (It is) from there he derives his origin. 
vient orgueilm. voila de tirer origine Par 

{Which way) did you come? (That is) {the road) I came. 

etes-vous arrive voila par oil venir ind-<* 

§iv. 

OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

We have seen (page 146) that ce joined to a noun 
takes its gender and number, and that as it does the 
office of article, it ought to follow the same laws of 
repitition. 

Ce 9 Cette, Ces> joined to Adverbs. 

When ce, cette, ces, are joined to the adverbs of 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 345 

place ci, here, and la, there, it is to point out in a 
more precise manner the thing spoken of; the de- 
monstrative pronoun is then placed before the 
substantive, and ci and la after it. 

EXAMPLES. 

ce livre-ci this book I eel hnmme-Xk that man 

cette fleur-ci this flower j ces femmes-lk those women 

Celui, celle, ceux, celles, must be followed by the 
preposition de, when placed before a substantive, 
and by a pronoun relative when placed before a 
verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

les maladies de lame sont plus dan- the disorders of the mind are 

gereuses que celles du corps more dangerous than those of 

the body 

Vhomme dont je vous ai parle, est the man of whom I spoke to you 

celui que vous voyez is he whom you see 

de toutes les choses du monde, e'est of all the things in the world, it 

celle quefaime le moins is that which I like least 

Remark. — The pronouns celui, celle, ceux, celles, 
followed by a pronoun relative, are expressed in 
English by the personal pronouns he, she, they, or 
fey that tvhich, those which, such as, etc. 

EXERCISE. 

The pleasures of the wise resemble in nothing those of a dis- 
ressembler 2 3 1 4 a dis- 

sipated man. He that suffers himself to (be ruled) by his passions? 
sipe 2 1 se laisse * dominer 

must renounce happiness. This stuff will become you won- 

doit renoncer a art. bonheur m. etoffe-ci f. * siera a mer- 

derfully. That action is worthy of blame. This scene is calcu- 

veille — f. -la blame — f. -ci 

lated to interest all men, but that cannot succeed, 
faite pour interesser art. -la ne saurait reussir 

Celui-ci, this — Celui-la, that. 

Celui-ci and celui- la take the gender and number 

q 2 



346 GENERAL SYNTAX 

of the substantives they represent. When in oppo- 
sition, celui-ci marks the nearest object, and celui- 
la the remotest. 

EXAMPLE. 

celui-ci plait, mats celui-la captive this pleases, but that captivates 

Ci and la are joined to ce, and form two demon- 
strative pronouns ceci and cela, the first signifies 
cette chose-ci, this object ; the second, cette chose-la, 
that object. 

They may be used singly, but when in opposition 
eeci expresses the nearest objeet, and cela the 
remotest. 



je rCaime point ceci, donnez-moi I don't like this, give me that 
cela 

Remark. — When cela is alone and not in oppo- 
sition with the pronoun ceci, they both refer to an 
object pointed to. 

EXAMPLES. 

que dites-vous de cela ? what do you say of that ? 

cela est fort beau that is very handsome 

EXERCISE. 

(Here are) certainly two charming prospects; this has some- 

voild certainement beau perspective f. pi. quel- 

thing more cheerful, but many people think that 

quechose de riant bien de art. personne f. pi. trouver 

more striking and more majestic. The body perishes, the soul 

imposant majestueux m. perir f. 

is immortal ; yet all our cares are for that, while we neg- 
— tel cependant soin tandis que neg- 

lect this. What means this? That is true. It is not that 
liger veut dire ce 

This is low and mean, but that is grand and sublime. 
bas rampant — — 



OF THE PRONOUNS 347 

§ v. 

OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

First Class. 

Those that are never joined to a Substantive. — P. 149. 

Quelqiiun means un, u?ie, one. 

EXAMPLES. 

nous attendons des hommes, il en we expect men, some one will 

viendra quelqu'un come 

plusieurs femmes m'ont promis de several ladies have promised me 

venir, il en viendra quelqu'une to come, some one of them will 

come 

Quelqiiun taken absolutely and substantively, is 
of both genders, and means une personne, a person. 

EXAMPLE. 

/ attends id quelqu'un I wait here for somebody 

Quelques-uns signifies plusieurs dans un plus grand 
nombre, several out of a great number. 

EXAMPLES. 

quelques-uns assurent some people affirm 

entre les nouvelles qui! a debitees, il among the reports he has circu- 
y en a quelques-unes de vraies lated several are true 

Quiconque, whoever, signifies quelque personne 
que ce soil, qui que ce soil, any person whatever. 
It takes no plural, and is used in speaking of per- 
sons only. 

EXAMPLE. 

ce discours s'adresse a quiconque this speech is addressed to who- 
est coupable ever is guilty 

Chacwi, each, every one, is used distributively or 
collectively. It has no plural. 

Distributively, it means chaque personne, chaque 
chose, each person, or thing. It is then used also 
in the feminine, and requires the preposition de 
after it. 

EXAMPLES. 

chacun de nous vit a sa mode each of us lives as he pleases 

voyez seper anient chacune de ces look at each of these medals 
medailles separately 



348 GENERAL SYNTAX 

Collectively it signifies toute personne, every 
person. 

EXAMPLE. 

chacun a ses defauts every body has his faults 

EXERCISE ON THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

Can any one (be still ignorant) that it is from the earliest 
pourrait-il 2 1 ignorer encore ce des tendre 

infancy, we ought to form the mind, the heart, and the taste? 
enfance f. on doit * former 

Will not some one of these ladies be of the party? Some people like 

* f. partie f. aimer 

to read (every thing new). (These are) beautiful pictures ; I 

toutes les nouveautes voild de superbe tableau m. 

could wish to buy some. Whoever has studied the principles 

vouloir en * acheter — pes 

of an art, knows that it (is only) (by length of time) and by 
— m. savoir ce iiest que a la longue 

deep reflections, that he can succeed in making it his 
de profond reflexion f. reussir a se2 rendre 4 leS * 

own. All the ladies at the ball were very finely dressed 
propre 5 hal m. ind.-2 * snperbement pare 

and each differently. Every one should, for (the 

avait une parure differente devrait pour 

sake of) his own happiness, listen only to the voice of rea- 

* propre m. necouter que * voix f. art. rai- 
son and of truth. What is the price of each of these medals * 
son f. art. veritef, prixm. f. medaille f 

Autrui, Personne, Rien. 

1. Autrui means les autres perso?ines, other 
people ; it is never accompanied by an adjective, has 
no plural, and is never used without being preceded 
by a preposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

la cha.rite se rejouit du bonheur charity rejoices in the happiness 
d'autrui of others 

2. Personne is always masculine and singular ; it 
means nul qui que ce soil, ncbody whosoever. 
Then it is preceded or followed by the negative ne 9 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 349 

placed after personne if this word stands before the 
verb ; and before the verb if personne is placed 
after it. The same observation applies to rien. 

EXAMPLES. 

il nefaut nuire a personne we must injure nobody 

personne n'est assure de vivre nobody is certain of living till 
jusqu'au lendemain to-morrow 

Remarks. 

1. In answers the negative is understood, as y a- 
t-il quelquun ici ? Is there any body here ? Per- 
sonne^ nobody. Personne means il riy a personne, 
there is nobody here. 

2. In interrogations without negation, or in ex- 
pressing doubt, personne signifies quelqu'un, anybody. 

EXAMPLES. 

personne oserait-il nier 9 would any body dare deny ? 

je doute que personne soit assez I doubt whether any body be bold 
hardi enough 

3. Personne placed in the second member of a 
comparison, means any body. 

EXAMPLE. 

cette place lui convient mieux qu'a that place suits him better than 
personne any body 

liien, nothing, is masculine and singular, it is 
used with or without a negation ; with a negation, 
it means nulle chose, nothing. 

EXAMPLE. 

il ne s'attache a rien de solide he applies himself to nothing 

fixed 

Without a negation, it means quelque chose, 
something. 

EXAMPLE. 

je doute que rien soit plus propre I doubt whether any thing be 
a /aire impression que f etc. more suited to make an im- 

pression than, etc. 



350 GENERAL SYNTAX 

In answers the negation is understood, que vous 
a coute cela? Rien. How much did you pay for it? 
Nothing, 

It requires the preposition de before the adjective 
or participle that follows it, then the verb and the 
negation are understood, as rieu de beau que le vrai, 
nothing is noble but truth. 

exercise on Autrui, Personne, etc. 

To most men the misfortunes of others are but a 

pour la plupart de art. mat m. ne que * 

dream. Do not to others what you would not wish (to be done 

songe m. vouloir qu on vous 

to you). No one knows whether he deserves love or hatred. 

Jit savoir si est digne de de 

An egotist loves nobody, not even his own children : in the 

egoiste pas meme propre dans 

whole universe he sees no one but himself. He is more than {any 

* univers ne voit * que lui seul 

body) worthy of the confidence (with which) the king honours him. 

digne confiance f. dont honorer 

I doubt whether any one ever painted nature, in its ami- 
que ait jamais peint art. , — f. 

able simplicity, better than the sentimental Gessner. Has any body 
= f. • sensible — * 2 

called on me this morning ? Nobody. There was nothing but 
est-ilvenulchez matin m. ind.-2 que 

what was great in the designs and works of the 

* de * grand dans dessein m. pi. art. ouvrage m. pi. 

Egyptians. I doubt whether there is any thing better calcu- 

— tiens que subj.-l 2 1 plus 

lated to exalt the soul than the contemplation of the wonders of 
propre — f. merveille f. 

nature, 
art. — f. 

SECOND CLASS. 

Those which are always joined to a Substantive. — Page 151. 

Quelque, Chaque, Quelconque. 
Quelque, some, signifies un, une eutre phisieurs, 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 351 

one out of several ; it is of both genders and may 
take the sign of the plural. 

EXAMPLE. 

addressez-vous a quelque autre apply to somebody else 
personne 

Chaque, each, every, is of both genders ; it has no 
plural. 

EXAMPLE. 

chaque pays a ses coutumes each country has its customs 

Quelconque, aucun, any ; quel que ce soit, what- 
ever it be ; quel quil soit, whoever lie be, is of both 
genders, and always follows a substantive ; with a 
negative, it is always singular. 



il ne vent se soumettre a aucune au- he will submit to no authority 
torite quelconque whatever 

Certain signifies quelque, certain, some. In this 
sense it is used of persons and things ; it always 
precedes the substantive. 



fai out dire a certain homme, a un I have heard some man say 
certain homme 

Un, une, a or an, used for quelque, certain, some 
person or some thing, takes the gender of the sub- 
stantive which it accompanies. 

EXAMPLES. 

fai vu un homme qui courait I saw a man who was running 

je me suis promene dans line grande I walked in a large fine meadow 
et belle prairie 

exercise on the Second Class. 

If you want to succeed in your undertaking, I advise you to 

desirer * reussir entreprise f. conseiller 

apply to some one well acquainted with your business. 
s'adresser quelqu' qui 2 connaitre subj -1 1 * f. 



352 GENERAL SYNTAX 

We were reading not long ago in a moral work, that every 

lire ind.-2 il rfy a pas lony-temps 1 de 3 2 1 

ruling prince should have a good and sound knowledge 
regnant 3 2 devoir con d.-l 2prqfonde solide connaissance f. 1 
of the human heart. Whatever may be his future conduct through 
pr. art. 2 1 m. dans 

the world, he will never be looked upon as an honest 

m. ne 1 jamais 3 passer 2 pour 5 ind.-7 * 

man (any longer). Your daughter, Madam, is so stubborn and be- 
plus 4 entete f. en 

sides so positive, that for (any thing) in the world, she 

meme temps entiere a pr. art. 

will yield to no authority whatever. Have we not often 
ne se rendre a 

heard certain foreigners boasting in this country of 
entendre inf. -3 sevanter leur 

riches and comforts, however poor they might 

pr. and pro. aisance tres pauvre 2 

have been. I was walking alone in the middle of 

1 se promener ind. a pr. art. 

a large and fine tract of woodland, when to my great surprise, 
el. grand etendue f. etonnement m. 

I chanced to meet a poor black boy clothed with rags 

par hazard rencontrer ind.-3 couvrir inf. -3 de 

and almost reduced to starvation. 
mourir inf.-3 de 

THIRD CLASS. 

Those which are sometimes joined to a Substantive and sometimes not. — 

Page 152. 

Nul and pas un, no, not any, not one, are em- 
ployed either alone or in conjunction with a sub- 
stantive. They are accompanied by the particle ?ie, 
must agree in gender with the noun to which they 
relate, and may be followed by the preposition de. 

EXAMPLES. 

nul de tous ceux qui y out ete n'en not one of those who went there 

est revenu has returned 

pas un ne croit cette nouvelle not one believes that intelli- 
gence 

je n'en ai nulle connaissance T have no knowledge of it 

il rty a pas une seule personne qui there is not a single person that 

le croit believes it 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 353 

Anemia accompanied by a negation, signifies nul 9 
no, not any. 

EXAMPLE. 

vqus rtavez aucun moyen de reussir you have no means of succeeding 
dans cette affaire in that affair 

This pronoun is only used in the plural when 
before substantives, which in some particular sense, 
are better employed in the plural. 

EXAMPLE. 

it h 'a fait aucunes dispositions he has made no dispositions 

Remark. — Aucun is used without a negation in 
interrogative sentences, or those which express 
doubt or exclusion. 

EXAMPLES. 

aucun homme fut-il jamais plus was ever any man more success- 

heureux ful ? 

on doute qu'&ucune de ces affaires they doubt whether any of those 

reussisse affairs will succeed 

le plus beau morceau d'eloquence the finest piece of eloquence 

quil y ait dans aucune langue, that exists in any language, 

etc. etc. 

EXERCISE. 

I do really pity the man who has not any friend upon 
* sincirement plaindre 2 ne I aucun 

whom he may rely to support him in a foreign land. 

pouvoir subj.-l compter pour secourir 2 1 
There was not a single individual to witness the case 

rty avoir pas pour etre temoin de 

when he ran away with Mrs. B 's diamonds. You have 

emporter ind.-3 * de 2 art. 1 ri avoir 

no reason to complain ; indeed, I do not know any one happier 
pas lieu de se plaindre 
than you are. My old uncle died in the year 1840, towards 

* mourir ind.-4 * 

the (latter end) of May, at the advanced age of ninety-five, 

art. fin f. * ans 

without having made any previous dispositions in favour of his 
inf. -I mf, -3 aucun — f, pi. en 



354 GENERAL SYNTAX 

family. May he rest in peace ! No one of his relatives 

que reposer subj.-l en 
will ever remember him : at all events, I will not. Has 

se ressouvenir de quant a moi rty penser plus ind.-l 

ever any man been more comfortable than he, who had not a single 

instant of illness during the whole period of his life ; but where 

le cours 
is he now ? I doubt whether he is likely to be as sue- 

douter que etre subj.-l * * * aussi lieu- 

cessful in the undiscovered country, from whose bourn no traveller 

reux ce 2 m. 1 d'oic * 

till now, has yet returned, as he was in this world, where 

rCetre revenir inf.-3 que ind. -2 

every thing used to go according to his wishes. 

* marcher ind. -2 au gre de 

Autre, FUn V Autre. 

Autre, other, expresses a difference between one 
and several objects, as quelle autre chose souhaitez- 
vous de moi? What else do you wish of me ? 

Remark. — Autre is sometimes used to express an 
indeterminate person, as jaime mieux que vous 
Fappreniez de tout autre que de moi, I had rather 
you learn it of any other person than of me. 

Un is sometimes opposed to autre, in which case 
these two words are preceded by the article, adopt 
the gender and number of the substantive to which 
they relate, and form the pronouns Vun V autre, Fun 
et F autre, and ni Fun ni F autre. 

Uun F autre, each other, one another, applies to 
persons and things ; it takes both gender and num- 
ber. If there be any preposition, it must be placed 
before the last. 

EXAMPLES. 

ilfaut se secourir Pun Pautre we ought to assist each other 

les passions s'entendent les unes our passions have a relation with 

avec les autres ; si Von se laisse each other ; if we indulge 

alter aux unes, on attire bientot some, the others will soon fol- 

les autres low 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 355 

Vun et V autre, both, require the verb to be in the 
plural. 

EXAMPLE. 

l'une et l'autre sont bonnes both are good 

Ni Vun ni V autre, neither, require the verb in 
the plural. 

EXAMPLE. 

ni Tun ni l'autre n'ont fait leur neither has done his duty 
devoir 



Ask another. Would any other have been so self- 

demandre a * aurait-il eu * assez oVamour 

conceited as to think that his private opinion could counter- 

propre * pour penser particulier 2 — f . I put ' ba- 

balance the public sentiment? Reason and faith equally 

lancer 2 opinion f, 1 art. raisGu f. art.^bi f. 2 

demonstrate that we were created for another life. They speak 
demontrer 1 creer ind.-4 f. 

ill of one another. The happiness of the people constitutes that of 
mat m. faire 

the prince ; their true interests are connected with each other. 

— m. inter et m. lie a pi. pi. art. 

Presumption and pride easily insinuated themselves into the 

presumption f. art. orgueil 2 se glisser 1 

heart; if we allow one the entrance, it is much to (be feared) 

m. Von y donne a 2 f . 3 * entree 1 bien craindre 

that we shall soon (abandon ourselves) to the other. Both re- 
on * bientot 2 ne se livre 1 rap- 

late the same story, though neither believes it to be true. 
porter fait m. ne penser que * soit 

Meme> Tel, Plusieurs, Tout. 

Le meme signifies qui 'it est pas d autre, which is 
not different. It is of both genders, and takes the 
plural. 

EXAMPLES. 

c'est le merae homme it is the same man 

la meme personne the same person 



356 GENERAL SYNTAX 

ce sont Ies memes raisons they are the same reasons 

ce poeme est le meme que celui this poem is the same that I was 
dontje vous ai parle mentioning to you 

Tel means pared, semblable, de meme, such, like, 
similar. It takes both genders and both numbers. 

EXAMPLES. 

un tel projet ne saurait reussir such a scheme cannot succeed 

il rCy a pas de tels animaux, de there are no such animals, no 
telles coutumes such customs 

When not joined to a noun, it either preserves 
its proper signification, or it expresses a person in- 
determinately. 

EXAMPLES. 

vous ne sauriez me persuader rien you cannot persuade me of any 

de tel such thing 

tel fait des liberalites, qui ne paye the same man is liberal in giving 

ses dettes who does not pay his debts 

Plusieurs, several, is plural, and of both genders. 
It relates to persons and things. 

EXAMPLES. 

plusieurs motifs Vont determine several reasons determined him 

je crois cela pour plusieurs rai- I believe that for several reasons 



sons 



parmi un si grand nombre de gens, out of so great a number of per- 
il y en eut plusieurs qui s'y op- sons several objected to it 
poserent 

When plusieurs is used absolutely as a substan- 
tive, it always means plusieurs personnes, several 
persons. 

EXAMPLE. 

plusieurs aiment mieux mourir many would rather die than for- 
que de perdre leur reputation feit their character 

Tous not joined to a substantive signifies toutes 
chases, all things ; toute sorte de chases, every kind 
of things. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 357 

EXAMPLE. 

tous nous abandonne au moment de every thing forsakes ns at the 
la mort ; il ne nous reste que nos moment of death : we retain 
bonnes ceuvres nothing but our good works 

When accompanied by a substantive, it is used 
either collectively or distributively. 

Collectively, tout signifies the totality of a thing, 
and is then followed by the article, 

EXAMPLES. 

tout Vunivers the whole universe 

tous les corps celestes all the celestial bodies 

Distributively, tout signifies chaque, each ; in 
this signification it is not accompanied by the ar- 
ticle. 

EXAMPLE. 

tout bien est desirable every good is desirable 

EXERCISE. 

Does he always maintain the same principles ? Yes, they are ab- 
soutenir — pe oui ce 

solutely the same. That general is the same that commanded 
— ment pi. — — der art. 

last year. Such a conduct is inexplicable. There are no 

dernier 2 annee f . 1 2 1 conduite f. — 

such customs in this country. I never heard (any 

de coutumes f. pays m. ai entendu dire 

thing) similar. The same man sows who often reaps nothing. 
rien de * * semer recueillir 

I this morning received several letters. Among those manu- 

1 3 matin 4 ind.-4 2 torcf.pl. — 

scripts, there are several much esteemed. Many by 

crits qu'on beaucoup 2 estime 1 en 

endeavouring to injure others, injure themselves more than 

s'efforcer de nuire a art. se nuire a 

they think. AU is in God and God is in all. The whole 

ne penser en 

course of his life has been distinguished by generous actions, 
cours m. f. marque des =2 — f . 1 

Every vice is odious. 
— m. = 



358 GENERAL SYNTAX 

FOURTH CLASS. 
Those which are followed by Que. — Page 153* 

Qui que, whoever, signifies quelque personne que, 
whatever person ; it requires the verb following to 
be in the subjunctive. 

EXAMPLES. 

qui que ce soil qui ait fait cela, whoever has done that is a man 

Jest un habile homme of talent 

qui que je sois whoever I may be 

qui que (fait ete whoever it may have been 

qui que c'eut ete whoever it might have been 

qui que ce puisse etre whoever it may be 

Qui que followed by ce soil, used with a negative, 
signifies aucune personne, nobody, as je ii!y trouve N 
qui que ce soil, I find nobody there. 

Quoi que, whatever it be, signifies quelque chose 
que, whatever thing ; it requires also the verb fol- 
lowing to be in the subjunctive. 

EXAMPLES. 

quoi qu' ilfasse, on qtfil dise, on whatever he does or says, he is 

se defie de lui distrusted 

quoi que vous disiez, je le ferai whatever you may say, I will do 

it 

Quoi que followed by ce soit, used with a negation, 
signifies aucune chose, not any thing. 

EXAMPLE. 

sans application, on ne peut reussir without application it is impos- 
es quoi que ce soit sible to succeed in any thing 

whatever 

Quel que signifies de quelque sorte, de quelque 
espece que ce soil, of whatever sort or kind it may 
be, when relating to things, or qui que ce soit, who- 
ever it may be, when relating to persons. It takes 
both gender and number, and requires the sub- 
junctive. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 359 



EXAMPLES. 

quelles que soient vos affaires, whatever business you may have, 

venez come 

je rien excepte personne, quel qa'tt I except nobody, whoever he may 

soit be 

Remark. — Lequel que, whosoever, whichsoever, 
is also used, as lequel des trois que vous choississiez, 
pen mimporte, whichever of the three you choose, 
I care little. It may also relate to persons or 
things. 

Quelque — que is of both genders ; when united to 
a substantive, it signifies quel que soit le, quelle que 
soit la, etc., whatever be the, etc. It has both num- 
bers, and requires the substantive. 

EXAMPLES. 

quelque raison qu'on lui apporte, whatever reason is adduced, he 
il iCen croit rien believes nothing about it 

quelques efforts que vous fassiez, whatever attempts you may make, 
vous ne reussirez point you will never succeed 

When united to an adjective, it signifies a quelque 
point que, however great a degree ; it then takes 
neither gender nor number. 

EXAMPLES. 

quelque belle quelle puisse etre, however beautiful she may be, 
elle ne doit pas etre vaine she ought not to be vain 

quelque puissans quHls soient, je ne however powerful they may be, 
les crains point I am not afraid of them 

Tel que, such as, is used in speaking of persons 
or things ; it takes both genders and numbers. 

EXAMPLE. 

c'est un homme tel quHl le faut he is j ust such a man as you want 

Tout — que signifies quoique, encore que, though ; 
quelque, however ; then tout is considered as an 
adverb, is employed with adjectives of every kind, 
and even with some substantives. 



360 GENERAL SYNTAX 

EXAMPLES. 

tout artificieux qu'ils sont, je doute artful as they are, I doubt whe- 

quele public soit long -temps leur ther the public will be long 

dupe their dupe 

toutefemme qu'elle est woman as she is 

EXERCISE. 

Whatever a frivolous world may think of you, never 

pouvoir subj.-l 
swerve from the path of truth and virtue. Whatever 
se detourner se?itierm, art. 

efforts you make, I doubt whether you are likely to succeed. 

subj.-l que pouvoir subj.-l * inf.-l 

Whatever events may happen, he has taken his 

qui pou voir subj.-l arriver inf.-l j 

resolution. Let the laws be what they may, we must always 
parti m. f. pi. subj-1 falloir ind.-l 

respect them. The man who descends into himself only to 

ne rentrer en que pour 

perceive his own defects and correct them, is ashamed to 
y demeler se corriger 2 en 1 avoir honte ind.-l 

see himself, such as he is. However surprising that phenomenon 
tel tout phenomene m. 

is, it is not against the (ordinary course) of nature. 
contre ordre art. — f. 

2. Whatever you may say, my good lady, you will never succeed 

* ne jamais ind.-4 

in making me believe that these two (very) white front teeth 
2 1 inf. -4 1 qui sont si 3 4 incisive 2 1 

are (your own); but, let me tell you that whoever 

subj.-l naturel f. pi. permettre que imp. subj.-l 2 1 
has put them in, is far from being a man of talent, 

3 arranger inf. -3 4 2 * vous 1 loin de inf.-l 
and every time I see you laughing or even smiling, I cannot 
aussi que 2 1 inf.-l inf.-l ne pouvoir 

help saying that your dentist is either an ignorant man or 

s'empecher de inf.-l * 

a deceitful fellow. No one should be allowed 

* a 2 ne devoir cond.-l imper. etre permettre 

to cheat the public, especially those who 

inf. -3 1 de en imposer a a ceux or a celles 

want to supply the defects of nature. 

a pr. art. 



OF THE VERB. 361 

CHAPTER V. 

OF THE VERB. 
Agreemeyit of the Verb with the Subject. 

We have already seen that the subject is that 
of which something is affirmed, and it may always 
easily be known, the answer to this question, qui 
est-ce qui? who or what is it? always pointing* it 
out, so as never to be mistaken. When we say, 
Pierre vit, Peter lives ; Voiseau vole, the bird flies ; 
if we ask qui est-ce qui vit? who is it that lives? 
qui est-ce qui vole ? what is it that flies ? the answers 
Pierre and Voiseau, show that Pierre and Voiseau 
are the subjects of the verbs vit and vole. 

Rule. — The verb ought to be of the same number 
and person as its subject. 

EXAMPLES. 

je ris I laugh nous parlons we speak 

tujoues thou playest vous plaisantez you jest 

il aime he loves ils sontfou they are mad 

la vertu est aimable virtue is amiable 

Ris is in the singular number, and the first 
person, because je, its subject, is in the singular 
and the first person. Joues is in the singular and 
the second person, because tu is in the singular and 
the second person, etc. 

EXERCISE. 

The freest of all men is he who can be free 

libre art. celui pouvoir ind.-l 

even in slavery itself. Are we not often blind to 

mime art. esclavage m. * s'aveugler ind.-l sur 

our defects? All men (are inclined) to laziness, but the 
defaut art. tendre ind.-l art. 

R 



362 GENERAL SYNTAX 

savages of hot countries are the laziest of all men. Do you 

art. chaud 2 pays 1 
think of imposing long on the credulity of the public ? Thou 
* en imposer long-temps a credulite f. — m. 

canst not deny that he is a great man. 
pouvoir nier wesubj.-l 

Observations. 

1. When a verb has two subjects in the singular 
number, this verb is put in the plural. 

EXAMPLE. 

mon pete et ma mire mHaiment ten- my father and mother loved me 
drement tenderly 

EXERCISE. 

His uprightness and honesty, make him (sought after) by 

droiture f. pron. honnetete /aire rechercher 

every body. Strength of body and of soul meet not 

art. f. art. celle se rencontrer 

always together. A good heart and a noble soul are precious 

ensemble beau (de) art. 

gifts of nature. 
don m. pi. art — f. 

2. When a verb relates to subjects of different 
persons, it agrees with the first in preference to the 
other two, and with the second in preference to the 
third. We first name the person to whom we are 
speaking, and always name ourselves last. 

EXAMPLES. 

vous, votrefrere, et moi, nous lisons you, your brother, and I, read 

ensemble la brochure nouvelle together the new pamphlet 

vous et votre ami, vous viendrez you and your friend, you will 

avec moi come with me 

EXERCISE. 

You, your friend, and I, have each a different opinion. In our 

chacun 2 — f . 1 

childhood, you and I (were pleased) with playing together. Nei- 
enfance f. se plaire ind. -2 a inf.-l ni 

ther I, nor (any one else) has been able to understand (any thing) 
m d'autres ne pouvoir ind. -4 * comprendre rien 



OF THE VERB. 363 

in that sentence. (Take good care) you and your brother, not 
a phrase f. se garder bien * 

to give way to the impetuosity of your tempers. 
de s'abandonner = caractere m. 

3. When a verb has qui relative for its subject, it 
is put in the same number and person as the noun 
or pronoun to which qui relates. — (See the same 
rule, p. 141). 

EXAMPLES. 
est-ce mol qui ai dit cette nouvelle ? is it I who told this news ? 
est-ce nous qui lemons voulu ? is it we who desired it ? 

les hommes qui aiment sincerement those who sincerely love virtue 
la vertu sont heureux are happy 

EXERCISE. 

He that complains most of men, is not always he that 
Celui se plaindre le plus art. 

(has most reason) to complain (of them). You that wish to 
etre le plus fonde 2 en I vouloir * 

enrich your mind with thoughts strongly conceived and nobly 
enrichir de f. fortement rendu noblement 

expressed, read the works of Homer and Plato. 
exprime Homfoe art. Platon 

See the exercise, p. 124. 

Of the Regimen of Verbs. 

We have said (p. 158) that an active verb was 
that after which we might put quelquun or quelque 
chose] likewise, that the word which is put after 
the verb is called the regimen of that verb. We 
then observed that this regimen might be known by 
asking the question qu est-ce que ? This regimen we 
call direct, and it may be either a noun or a pro- 
noun.* 

Rule. — When the regimen of the active verb is 
a noun, it is always placed after the verb ; when it 
is a pronoun, it is generally placed before it. 

* The regimen of an active verb is called direct because it is not preceded by 
any preposition which would prevent the direct action expressed by the verb. — 
See p. 445. Particular Syntax of Pronouns. 



364 GENERAL SYNTAX 

EXAMPLES, 

ma mere aime tous ses enfans my mother lo^es all her children 

je vous aime, and not as in English I love you 

faime vous 

il m'aime, and not il aime moi he loves me 

EXERCISE. 

He has discovered to all other nations his ambitious 

montrer art. * peuple m. pi. = 2 

design of enslaving them, and has left us 

m. I mettre dans Vesclavage inf.-l ne laisser 

no means of defending our liberty, but by endeavouring to 
aucun moyen inf.-l = f . que en tdcher inf. -3 de 

overturn his new kingdom. Homer represents Nestor as one that 
renverser royaume m. celui 

restrained the boiling wrath of Achilles, the pride of Aga- 
moderer ind. 2 bouillant courroux m. 

memnon, the fierceness of Ajax, and the impetuous courage of 

JierteL =2 — 1 

Biomede. He dared not (lift up) his eyes, lest they 
Diomede oser ind.-2 lever * art. de peur de * 

should meet those of his friend, whose very silence 

* rencontrer inf.-l ceu.v art. meme 2 — m. 1 

condemned him. He caresses them because he loves them. 

ind.-2 

Beside this regimen direct, some active verbs 
may have a second, which is called indirect, and is 
marked by the words a or de, as il a fait un present 
a sa sceur, he has made a present to his sister ; il 
accuse son ami d" imprudence, he accuses his friend 
of imprudence. 

This second regimen is known by the answer to 
these questions; a qui? to whom? a quoi? to 
what? as a qui a-t-il fait un present? to whom did 
he make a present ? a sa sceur, to his sister. De 
quoi accuse-t-il son ami ? of what does he accuse his 
friend? d'imprudence, of imprudence. 

EXERCISE. 

By submitting to the yoke of Asia, Greece (would have 
en suhir inf.- * joug m. art. art. 



OF THE VERB. 365 

thought virtue subjected to voluptuousness, the 

croire cond -2 art. 2 assujettir inf.- 1 art. volupte f. 
mind to the body, and courage to a foolish strength, which 

art. — m. un in sense 2 f. 

consisted only in the multitude. Three hundred Lacedemonians 

ind.~2 — f. — niens 

ran to Thermopylae to certain death, content, in 

courir ind.-3 art. pi. un assure 2 f. 1 en 

dying, to have killed (in defence) of their country, an infinite 

de immoler * a 2 

number of barbarians, and to have left to their countrymen the 

1 barbare de laisser compatriot e 

example of an unheard of bravery. You knew -the impor- 

ino ui 2 * hardiesse f. 1 savoir ind.-2 — f. 

tance which your parents attached to the success of that affair, 
que ind.-2 reussite f. f. 

why (have you not hastened) to announce it (to them). 
pourquoi sHmpresser ind.-4 de 3 f . 1 2 

Regimen of Passive Verbs. 

The regimen of passive verbs is de or par, before 
the noun or pronoun that follows them, as la souris 
est mangee par le chat, the mouse is eaten by the 
cat ; un enfant sage est aime de tout le ntonde, a 
good child is loved by every body. 

Observation. — We ought never to use the word 
par, by, before Dieu, God. We say, les mechants 
seront punis de Dieu, which, in order to avoid 
making use of by, may be thus construed in 
English, God will punish the wicked. 



The city of Troy was taken, plundered, and destroyed by the 
Troie pris f. saccage f. detruit f. 

confederate Greeks, 1184 before the Christian sera: this event 
confedere 2 1 ans avant 2 ere f. 

has been celebrated by the two greatest poets of Greece and 

art. art. 

Italy. You will only be loved, esteemed, and (sought after) by men 
ni rechercher de 



366 GENERAL SYNTAX 

(in proportion as) you join the qualities of the heart to 
que autant que joindre ind. 7 

those of the mind. God punished the 

f. pi. pr. 3 punir (passive voice ind. -3 2) peuple 

Jews every time that, deaf to the voice of the prophets, 
Juif \ toutes les fois sourdm.^A. f. pr ophite 

they fell into idolatry and. impiety, 

sing, tomber ind.-3 dans art. = art. = 

Some few neuter verbs have no regimen, as 
dormir, to sleep ; but many of them have an indi- 
rect one. 

Rule. — We put a or de before the noun or pro- 
noun that follows the neuter verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

tout genre oVexces nuit a la sanie every kind of excess is hurtful to 

health 
il midit de tout le monde he slanders every body 

EXERCISE. 

This sentiment has pleased the king and all the nation. In 
— m. a a — f. dans 

his retirement, he (has the full enjoyment) of the faculties of his 

retraile f. jouir tout f. pi. 

soul. To slander (any one) is to assassinate him in cold 

medire de quelqu'un c'est * 2 1 de 2 

blood. The honest man seldom (permits himself) to jest 

sang 1 rarement se permettre de * art. plaisan- 

because he knows the most innocent jests may 

eerie f. pi. parceque savoir que f. pi. * pouvoir 

sometimes hurt the reputation. It is only in retirement that 
quelquefois nuire a — f. ne que 

one truly enjoys one's self. His work has pleased 

on v entablement 2 jouir 1 de soi a 

every one, because it joins to real utility the allurements 

art. monde joindre un 2 f . 1 agrement m. pi. 

of style, and the beauty of sentiments, 
art. m. = f . — 

We have seen that the reflective verbs have for 
their regimen the personal pronouns me, te, se, tious 



OF THE VERB. 367 

and vous, and that this regimen is sometimes direct, 
and sometimes indirect. — (See tlie exercise p. 22L) 



OF THE NATURE AND USE OF MOODS AND TENSES. 

Of the Indicative. 

The indicative is the manner of expressing the 
different tenses with simple affirmation only. It 
contains eight tenses, viz. the present, the imperfect, 
the preterit definite, the preterit indefinite, the 
preterit anterior, the pluperfect^ the future simple, 
and the future anterior. 

1 . The present denotes that a thing is, or is doing, 
at the time when it is mentioned, asfazme, I love; 
ilsjouent, they play. 

2. The imperfect denotes the past with regard to 
the present ; it shows that a thing was present at a 
time which is past ; je soupais quand il entra, I was 
supping when he came in. 

3. The preterit definite denotes a thing done at a 
time which is entirely past ; jecrivis hier a Rome, 
I wrote yesterday to Rome. The time is precisely 
determined.* 

4. The preterit indefinite denotes a thing either 
done at a time which is past, but not particularly 
determined, as il m'a fait un vrai plaisir en venant 
me voir, he has given me real pleasure by coming to 
see me; or at a time past, though still unfinished, 
asfaivu cette semaine beaucoup de rnonde, I have 
seen many people this week. 

* Therefore we could not say, fecrivis ce matin, aujourd'hui, cette semaine, 
ce mois-ci, cette annee-ci, because the time mentioned is not quite elapsed. — (See 
Particular Syntax of Verbs, p. 473 ). 



368 GENERAL SYNTAX 

EXERCISE. 

My sister is in her chamber, where she (is occupied) in reading 
f. oil s'occuper a inf.- 1 

ancient history, the study (of which) pleases her extremely. 

2 1 2 dont 1 2 lui 1 infiniment art. 

Benefits bestowed are (so many) trophies 

bienfait que on repandre ind- 1 autant de art. trophee que on 

erected in the heart of those whose felicity (has been promoted) 
s'eriger m. 1 art. = f. 4 on 2 f aire ind.-l 3 

(by them). The great Corneille was occupied in his cabinet 

— a 

tracing the plan of one of his tragedies, when a servant, terrified, 
inf.-l f« tout effraye 

came to tell him that his house was on fire : 

ind. -3 * lui * art. 3 prendre a ind.-6 2 * art. 1 

go and find my wife, replied he ; I do not understand 

* trouver repondre ind. -3 entendre rien a 

the economy of the family. Some Hungarian noblemen re- 
affaire pi. menage m. de art. Hongrois 2 seigneur 1 se 
volted against the Emperor Sigismund ; this prince heard 
revolter ind.-3 = — mond apprendre 
it, and marched fiercely against them : Which, among 
ind. -3 fierement au devant de d'entre 
you, said he (to them), will (lay hands) upon his king 
ind.-3 2 3 1 meitre 1 la main, 3 4 
first? If there be one bold enough, let him advance. This 
art. 2 en un hardi2 1 

noble firmness struck the rebels (with awe}, who returned 
en imposer a seditieux * rentrer 

immediately to their duty. I have travelled through almost all 

aussitot dans le devoir voyager dans 

Europe, and I have visited the most celebrated places in Asia 

lieu de art. 
and Africa ; if, on one side, I admired the master-pieces of 

pr.-art. de ind. -4 chef-d'oeuvre 

art, which the protection of enlightened governments has 
art. L — art. 2 -—1 

promoted in every kind, on the other, I shed tears, (in seeing) 
faire naitre en genre m. ind. -4 sur 

the ravages of ignorance and barbarism. 

— art. — pr.-art. barbarie f. 

5. The preterit anterior denotes that a thing was 



OF THE VERB. 369 

done at a time which is past, and is either definite 
or indefinite. They differ as the two preterits, defi- 
nite and indefinite. J'eus fini de diner hier a midi, 
I had finished dining yesterday at twelve o'clock ; 
fax eu fini de dejeuner ce matin a dix heures, I 
had finished breakfast this morning at ten o'clock. 

6. The pluperfect denotes that a thing was done 
before another, which was done itself at a time past ; 

f avals soupe quand il entra, I had supped when he 
came in. 

7. The future absolute denotes that a thing will 
be, or will be done, at a time which is not yet come ; 

jirai demain a la campagne, I shall go to-morrow 
into the country. 

8. The future anterior denotes that when a thing- 
shall happen, another will then have been ; quand 
faurai fini> je sortirai, when I shall have doue, or 
when I have done, I shall go out. 

EXERCISE. 

I had done yesterday at noon. I went out (as soon as) I had 
midi sortir ind.-4 des que 

dined. As soon as Caesar had crossed the Rubicon, he had no longer 

passer plus 

to deliberate ; he was obliged to conquer or to die. I had finished 

devoir ind.- * vaincre * 
the task that he had imposed upon me, when he came in. Those 

tdche f. imposer f. * 

who had contributed most to his elevation on the throne of his 

le plus — - 

ancestors, were those who laboured with the most eagerness to 

travailler de acharnement 

precipitate him (from it). I shall shortly go into the country, 

4 2 3 en ne point tarder a a 

where I intend to (collect plants); in order to (make myself 
se proposer de herb or is er mi -\ se 

perfect) in the knowledge of botany. When I have 

perfectionner art. botanique 

done reading the divine writings of Homer and 

achever ind.- de inf.-l ecrit m. — e pr. 

r2 



370 GENERAL SYNTAX 

Virgil, and my mind has imbibed their beauties, I 

— e que se penetrer ind.-8 de 

shall read the other epic poets. 
ind.-7 2 I 

Of the Conditional, 

The conditional is the manner of expressing the 
affirmation, with dependance upon some condition; 
it has two tenses, viz. the present and t\\e past. 

The present of the conditional denotes, according 
to circumstances, either that a thing would be, or 
would be done upon certain conditions ; as je ferais 
votre affaire avant peu, si elle dependait uniquement 
de moi, I would settle your business before long, if 
it only depended upon me. 

The past of the conditional denotes that a thing 
would have been at a time which is past upon some 
conditions ; faurais or feusse fait votre affaire si 
vons men aviez, or men eussiez parle, I would have 
settled your business if you had mentioned it to me. 

EXERCISE. 

What were not the felicity of man, if he always sought his 
quel cond.-l = f . chercher ind -2 

happiness in himself? I should be glad to see you united, happy, and 

en 
comfortable. A dupe to my imagination, I should have been lost 

tranquille * de s'egarer 

(but for) you, in my search after truth. Enquire whe- 

sans * art. recherche f. de art. s informer 

ther he would have consented to those conditions, in case 

consentir — dans art. que 

he should have thought himself able to fulfil them. 
se cr aire subj- 4 de remplir2 1 

Of the Imperative. 

The imperative in verbs, is the manner of ex- 
pressing, beside the affirmation, the act of com- 
manding, exhorting, or entreating. It has but one 



OF THE VERB. 371 

tense, which denotes the present, with relation to 
the act of commanding, and the future, with regard 
to the thing commanded; faites cela, do that. 

N. B. — A sort of compound of the imperative, as 
ayez dine avant queje revienne, have dined before I 
return, very seldom occurs. 

Be not fond of praise, but seek virtue, that lead? 

passionne pour art- art. attire 

to it. Let him know that, unless virtue guide us, our 

savoir a moins que art. ne 

choice must be wrong. Let us not be deceived by the 

devoir ind.-l mauvais se laisser prendre a 

first appearances of things ; but let us (give ourselves) time 

art. se dormer art. 

to fix our judgment. Arbiters of the destinies of men, do good, 
de arbitre — nee art. 

if you wish to be happy; do good, if you wish that your memory 
* = f. 

should be honoured ; do good, if you wish that heaven should 
subj.-l art. 

open to you its eternal gates. Let them never forget that the 

subj.-l 2 porte f. 1 

truly free man is he, who, void of all fears, and (of) all 

veritablement 2 3 1 degage f. 5 

desires, is subject only to the gods and reason, 

m. 3 ne soumis que pr. art. f. 

Of the Subjunctive. 

The subjunctive is the manner of expressing the 
affirmation, with dependance upon something that 
precedes*. It has four tenses, viz. the present or 
future, the imperfect, the preterit, and the pluperfect 

The present expressing sometimes a future event, 
being under the same form, is distinguished only by 
circumstances. When we say il faut que je vous 
aime Men pour supporter toute vos inegalites, I must 

* Thus je voudrais qu'il lut, I should like him to read, forms sense, but qvJil 
lUt, that he might read, standing alone, does not form any whatever. 



372 GENERAL SYNTAX 

love you very much indeed to bear with all your 
inequalities, it is evident that je voits aime denotes 
the present tense. But if we say, je doute quit 
vienne, I doubt whether he will come, the words it 
vienne are evidently for il viendra* 

The imperfect of the subjunctive most commonly 
expresses a past action, but it is likewise susceptible 
of a future signification. If to these words il est 
partly he is gone, we answer je ne croyais pas quit 
partit, I did not think he would go, this tense 
expresses a time past ; but if the same answer be 
made to these words, il partira, he will go, then it 
certainly is a future. 

The preterit has likewise these two significations, 
il a falhi que jaie passee chez lui, I was obliged to 
call on him, is a past ; but je nentreprendrai pas 
cette affaire^ que je naie consulte, I will not under- 
take that business before I have consulted, is a 
future. 

It is the same with the pluperfect ; this sentence, 
je ne croyais pas que voits eussiez si tot fait, I did 
not think you would have done so soon, expresses 
the past ; but this,je voudrais que vous eussiez fait 
avant mon retour, I wish you might have done 
before I come back, expresses the future. 

EXERCISE. 

Men must be (very much) blinded by their passions, 

art. 3 il 1 que 2 subj,-l bien — 2 

not to acknowledge that they ought to love one 

2 pour 1 devoir ind.-l * s y aimer art. pi. art. 

another, as parts of a whole ; and as the members of our body 

pi. art. tout 2 

would do, if (every one) had its particular vitality. You asked 
] cond.-l chacun viei. prier ind.-4 

him to come with us ; but I doubt whether he will have that com- 

de que subj.-l 

* This distinction ought not to perplex the English, learner, since in that sense 
they use the future — he will come. 



OF THE VERB. 373 

plaisance. I could not persuade myself that he was so vain as 
— f. ind.-2 subj.-2 * 

to aspire to that place. Though every body says so, I do not 
pour — f. subj.-l le 

believe that he is gone to Rome. (Is it possible) that he 
subj.-l se pouvoir 

should let slip so good an opportunity to cover himself with im- 
laisser subj.-3 beau occasion f. de se couvrir de un 

mortal glory? I should have desired that he had profited by his 

== f. subj.-4 de 

abode in the country to perfect himself in the study of phi- 
sejour a se perfectionner art. 

losophy. 

Of the Infinitive, 

The infinitive is, in verbs, the manner of ex- 
pressing without affirmation, or of expressing affir- 
mation indefinitely. It denotes the action, or state, 
in general, and consequently is not susceptible of 
either numbers or persons. 

The infinitive denotes, of itself, neither present, 
past, nor future, nevertheless it is considered as 
denoting those tenses when it follows other verbs. 
The present always expresses a present, relative to 
the preceding verb, je le vois, je le vis, je le vervain 
venir, I see, I saw, I shall see him come (coming). 
The past always expresses a past, relative to the 
verb that precedes it je crois,je croyais V avoir vu 
venir, I think, I thought I had seen him coming 
To express a future, the infinitive must be preceded 
by the infinitive of the verb devoir, as je croyais 
devoir y alter, I thought I was to go thither. 

Observation. 

The infinitive also expresses a future after the 
verbs promettre, esptrer, compter, sattendre, and 
meuacer, as it promet de venir (quit viendra), he 



374 GENERAL SYNTAX 

promises to come (that he will come) ; il menace de 
sy rendre (quil sy rendra), he threatens to go 
(that he will go) thither. 

EXERCISE. 

We only shut our eyes to truth, because we fear to see 

ne art. que parce que 

ourselves as we are. We were yet far from the castle, when 

tel que ind.-2 encore 

one of our friends came to join us. I did not think I ought to set 

ind.-3 * * inf.-l * 

out so soon. He promises every day that he will amend, but 

art. de * se cor tiger 

I do not rely upon his promises. They talk of a secret ex- 
compter promesse f. pi. on 2 

pedition ; he hopes to be (in it). He relies upon seeing you 
— f . 1 * 2 en 1 compter * inf.-l au 

very soon, to terminate amicably his affair with you. You 
premier jour pour a I amiable 

expected to take a journey this year; but your father has 
s'attendre ind.-2 defaire voyage m. 

changed his mind. He threatens to punish severely, if we fall 
de * avis de sever ement re- 

again into the same error. 
tomber faute 



OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

The participle partakes of the properties both of 
a verb and an adjective ; of a verb, as it has its 
signification and regimen, of an adjective, as it ex- 
presses the quality of a person or thing. 

There are two participles, the participle present, 
and the participle past. 

OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT 

The participle present in all verbs terminates in 
a?it, as aimant , Jinissant , recevant, rendant. 



OF THE PARTICIPLE. 375 

Rule. — The participle present takes neither gen- 
der nor number when it expresses an action, as 
une montagne^ or des montagnes dominant sur des 
plaines i?nmenses 3 a mountain, or mountains com- 
manding immense plains ; un homme, des fwmmes, 
une fenmie, des femmes lisant, parlant, ?narchant, a 
man, men, a woman, women reading, speaking, 
walking. But when, like an adjecthe, it expresses 
a quality, it takes both the gender and number of 
its substantive, as un homme obligeant, an obliging 
man ; une femme obligeanfe, an obliging woman ; 
des tableaux parlants, speaking portraits ; la religion 
dominante, the established religion ; a la nuit torn- 
bante, at night fall. 

What some grammarians call gerund, is nothing 
but the participle present, to which the word en 
is prefixed; on se forme V esprit en lisant de 
hons livres, we form our minds .by reading good 
books. 

EXERCISE ON THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

That mountain being very high, and thus commanding a vast 

eleve ainsi dominer sur grand 

extent of country, was very well calculated for our observations. 

etendue pays ind.-2 * propre a, 

This woman is of a good disposition, obliging every one, when- 

caractere m. tout le monde quand 

ever she (has it in her power). They go cringing before the great 

le pouvoir ramper devant pi. 

that they may be insolent to their equals. The state of pure 
afin de * * inf.-l pi. avec egal 

nature is the savage living in the desert, but living in his family, 

famille f, 
knowing his children, loving them, (making use) of speech, and 
coimaitre user art. parole 

(making himself understood). An agreeable languor impercep- 
sefaire entendre 2 langueur f. 1 insensible- 

tibly (laying hold) of my senses, suspended the activity of my 
merit s'emparer 



376 GENERAL SYNTAX 

soul, and I fell (asleep). Time is a real blunderer, 

s'endormir ind -3 art. vrai brouillon 

placing, replacing, ordering, disordering, impressing, erasing, ap- 
mettre remettre ranger deranger imprimer effacer ap- 
proaching, removing, and making all things, good and bad ; and 

procher eloigner rendre f. pi. 

almost always (impossible to be known again.) 

quasi meconnaissable 

OF THE PARTICIPLE PAST. 

We have seen in the conjugations that the parti- 
ciple past has various terminations, as aime,ftni^ 
requ, ouvert, dissous, etc. 

This participle either agrees with its subject, or 
its regimen. 

Agreement of the Participle Past with its Subject. 

Ride I. — The participle past, when it is accom- 
panied by the auxiliary verb etre, agrees with its 
subject in gender and number; that is, we add to it 
e, if the subject be feminine, and s, if it be in the 
plural. 

EXAMPLES. 

nionfrere est tombe my brother is fallen down 

mesfrires sont tombes my brothers are fallen down 

ma sceur est tombee my sister is fallen down 

mes soeurs sont tombees my sisters are fallen down 

la nuit sera bientot passee the night will soon be over 

les spectacles sontfrequentes the theatres are frequented 

cettefleur est fort recherchee this flower is much sought after 

ils sont fort estimes they are very much esteemed 

Observation. 

In the compound tenses of reflective verbs, the 
participle agrees with the regimen, and not with 
the subject. In this sentence, je me suis promenee^ 
promenee agrees with the regimen me if relating to 
a female ; but in this, Lucrece s'est donne la mort, 
the participle donne takes no gender, because se is 



OF THE PARTICIPLE. 377 

'for a sot: in this case, as it will be seen hereafter, 
the participle takes neither gender nor number 
owing to its being indirect. 

EXERCISE. 

Fire arms were not known to the ancients. Ishmael, 
art. arme a feu f. pi. ind.-4 connu de Ismail 

the son of Abraham, is known among the Arabs, as the man from 

* parmi Arabe celui 

whom they are sprung, and circumcision has remained (with 
sortir art. f. etre demeure leur 

them) as the mark of their origin. Heaven is that permanent 

f. art. — 2 

city, wherein the just are to be received after this life. In 
cite f. 1 oil pi. devoir * apres de 

Abraham's time, the threatenings of the true God were dreaded 
2 art. 1 menace f. p]. ind.-2 redoute 

by Pharaoh, king of Egypt ; but, in the time of Moses, all the 

Pharaon Mo'ise 

nations were perverted, and the world, which God had made to 

f. pi. perverti pour 

manifest his power, was become a temple of idols. That 

puissance f. devenu 

dreadful crisis, which threatened the state with instant destruc- 

crise f. ind.-2 de prochain 2 f . i 

tion was happily soon over. She is come to bring us all 
heureusement passs * 

kinds of refreshments. Sciences have always been pro- 

sorte f. pi. rqfraichissement art. f. pi. pro- 

tected by enlightened governments. 
tege art. eclaire 2 1 

Rule II. — -The participle past, when it follows 
the verb avoir, never agrees with its subject. 

EXAMPLES. 

monfrere a ecrit my brother has written 

mesjreres ont ecrit my brothers have written 

ma soeur a ecrit my sister has written 

mes saeurs ont ecrit my sisters have written 

les Amazones ont acquis de la ce- the Amazons have acquired cele- 

lebrite bri ty 

j'ai contraint les soldats a marcher I have forced the soldiers to 

march 



378 GENERAL SYNTAX 

Observations. 

The participle ett is the only one, in the French 
language, that never varies. We say it or die a 
ete, he or she has been ; its or elles ont ete, they 
have been. 

N. B. — The same observation may apply to neu- 
ter verbs which are conjugated with avoir in their 
compound tenses, as it or elle a dormi, he or she has 
slept ; Us or elles ont nui, they have annoyed. 

EXERCISE. 

The Romans successively triumphed over the most warlike 
Romain success ivement ind.-4 de beUiqueux 2 

nations. Lampridius relates that Adrian erected to Jesus 

1 Adrien elever ind.-6 

Christ some temples, which (were still to be seen) in his 

de art. en encore 2 voir ind.-2 1 de 

time. Happy those princes who have never (made use) of their 
* art. user 

power but to do good ! We have spent the whole day in 
pouvoir que pour art. 2 1 journee f. a 

tormenting ourselves. One has seldom seen a great stock of 
inf.-l 2 nous 1 rarement fonds m. 

good sense in a man of imagination. The errors of Descartes proved 
sens a — — * 

very useful to Newton. 
beaucoup servir ind.-4 — 

Agreement of the Participle Past with its Regimen . 

Rule I. — The participle past always agrees with 
its regimen direct, when that regimen is placed 
before the participle, whether the auxiliary verb 
that accompanies it be avoir or etre. 

EXAMPLES. 

les ecoliers que j'ai eus ont fait de the pupils whom I have had have 

grands progres made a rapid progress 

Lucrece s'est tuee Lucretia has killed herself 

i'ai renvoye les livres que vous I have sent back the books which 

nCaviez pretes you had lent me 



OF THE PARTICIPLE. 379 

que de soins je me suis donnes what pains I have taken 

quelle affaire avez-vous entreprise ? what business have you under- 
taken ? 
quand la race de Cain se Jut mul- when the race of Cain had mul- 

tipliee tiplied 

ces yeux que rCont emus ni soupirs those eyes which neither sighs or 

ni terreur terror have moved 

le dieu Mercure est un de ceux que the god Mercury is one of those 

ks anciens ont le plus multiplies whom the ancients have mul- 

tiplied the most 



Observation. — The regimen put before the par- 
ticiple is, in general, one of these pronouns, que, me, 
te, se, le, la, les, nous and votes ; but it is sometimes 
a noun joined to the pronoun quel, or preceded by 
the word of quantity que, as may be seen in the 
before-mentioned examples. 



All the letters which I have received, confirm that important 
f. pi. conjirmer 2 

news. The agitated life which I have led till now, makes 

1 agite 2 f . 1 mener jusqud present 2 

me sigh for retirement. The difficulties which the aca- 

1 soupirer apres art. retraite f. f. pi. 

demies (have proposed to one another) do not seem easy to (be 

sefaire ind.-4 paraiire aise 

resolved). The sciences which you have studied, (will prove) infi- 
resoudre f. pi. etre 2 

nitely useful (to you). The death which Lucretia gave herself 

3 4*1 f. se donner ind.-4 

has (made her immortal). The cities which those nations have 

la immortalise/ ind..4 f. pi. peuple 

(built to themselves) are but a heap of huts. The persons 

se bdtir ne que amas chaumiere f. pi. 

whom you have instructed appear to me possessed of reason and 

plein pr. 

taste. Nothing can equal the ardour of the troops which I have 

egaler f. pi. 

seen (setting off). The chimeras which she has got in her head, 
inf.-l ckimere f. pi. se mettre * art. 



380 GENERAL SYNTAX 

(are beyond) all belief. What steps have I not taken! 

passer croyance f. demarche f. pi. /aire 

What fortunes has not this revolution overthrown I What tears has 
f. pi. 2 — f . 1 renverser que de f. pi. 2 

she not shed; what sighs has she not heaved! The Amazons 
3 1 verser m. pi. pousser f. pi. 

made themselves famous by their courage. The city of London has 
se rendre ind.-4 celebre — f. 

(made itself), by its commerce, the metropolis of the universe. I 
devenir — m. 

have thought her agitated by the furies. This day is one of those 

croire m. pi. 

which they have consecrated to tears. The language in which 

consacrer art. langue f. * 

Cicero and Virgil have written^ will last in their works. I could 
Ciceron vivre par * 

have wished to avoid those details, but I thought 

vouloir * eviter d'entrer dans croire ind.-4 

them necessary. The tribunes demanded of Clodius the execution 
tribun m. pi. ind.-3 a — 

of the promise which the consul Valerius had given them. 

leur 



Rule II. — The participle past never agrees with 
its regimen indirect, nor with its regimen direct, if 
that regimen is placed after it. 

EXAMPLES. 

la lettre dontje vous ai parte the letter which I have mentioned 

to you 

la perte et les profits auxquels il a the loss and profits in which he 

participe has participated 

les academies se sont fait des objec- the academies have proposed ob- 

tions jections to one another 

vous avez instruit ces personnes a you have taught these persons to 

dessiner draw 

Lucrece s'est donne la mort Lucretia has put herself to death 

Observation. — We have in French about 600 
verbs which have no regimen direct, 550 of which 
are conjugated with the auxiliary verb avoir. 



OF THE PARTICIPLE. 381 



EXERCISE. 

The persons whose visit you had announced to me, are not 
1 art. f.-5 2 4 3 

come. Men built cities. The Amazons acquired 

art. se bdtir ind.-4e?e art. ind.-4 

great celebrity. 1 have forced the soldiers to march. That 
beaucoup de = contraindre 

woman has given herself fine gowns. Letters and writing 

se donner de art. 4 art. ecriture 5 

were invented to represent speech. She has cut two 
on 1 a 2 3 powr peindre art. se couper 

(of her) fingers. Titus had wccfe his wife mistress of his 

* doigt m. pi. rendre 

riches. I have given myself a great deal of trouble. Com- 

bien * bien art. peine f. art. 

merce has made this city flourishing. They have appointed them- 
m. rendre f. fiorissant se donner 

selves a rendezvous. 

* 

Rule III. — The participle past takes neither 
gender nor number, either when the participle and 
the auxiliary verb to which it is joined are used im- 
personally, or when that participle is followed by a 
verb, which governs the nouns or pronouns pre- 
ceding it. 

EXAMPLES. 

les chaleurs excessives qu'il a fait the excessive heats whieh we 
cet ete ont beaucoup nui a la have had this summer, have 
recolte done great injury to the har- 

vest 
quelle fdcheuse aventure vous est-il what unpleasant adventure have 

a rive ? you met with ? 

la maison que fai fait bdtir the house which I have ordered 

to be built 
imitez les vertus que vous avez en- imitate the virtues which you have 

tendu louer heard praised 

les mathematiques que vous rCavez the mathematics which you would 

pas voulu que j'etudiasse not permit me to study 

elle s'est lai&se seduire she has suffered herself to be 

seduced 

Observations. 
To make a right application of the second part of 



382 GENERAL SYNTAX 

this rule, we ought to examine whether we can put 
the regimen immediately after the participle. As 
we cannot say : fat fait la maison, vous avez entendu 
les vertus, vous riavez pas voulu les matfiematiques, 
it follows that the regimen belongs to the second 
verb. Sometimes, however, the regimen may 
relate either to the participle, or to the verb, ac- 
cording to the meaning of the speaker. For 
instance, we ought to say je V ax vu peindre, meaning 
I saw her picture drawn, and je Tai vue peindre, 
meaning, I saw her painting. 

Sometimes it happens too, that in sentences 
which are almost the same, the regimen in one 
belongs to the participle, and in the other to the 
following verb; for instance, we ought to answer 
this question, avez-vous entendu chanter la nouvelle 
actrice ? Have you heard the new actress sing ? Out, 
je Vai entendue chanter, yes, I have ; but this ques- 
tion, avez-vous entendu chanter la nouvelle ariette ? 
Have you heard the new song? must be answered, 
oui,je Uai entendu chanter, yes, I have. 

EXERCISE. 

The great changes which (have taken place) in admi- 
changement y avoir ind.-l art. 

nistration, have astonished many people. The heavy rains 

— bien des personne grand pluie f. pi 

which we have had in the spring, have been the cause of many 
* il faire ind.-4 
diseases. The scarcity which there was last winter, has 

maladie f. pi. disettef. ind.-4 art. dernier 2 1 

afforded the opportunity of doing much good. What^ news have 
donner occasion inf.- 1 bien etre il 

come to you ? The scholars whom you taught to read, have made 
venu ind—4 de 

great progress. The figures which you have learned to draw 

apprendre dessiner 

are of great beauty. We ought never to swerve from the 
un = faUoir ind.-l * s' eloigner 



OF THE PARTICIPLE. 383 

good path which we have begun to pursue. The measures 

route f. on suivre mesure f. pi. 

which you advised me to adopt have not succeeded. The 
conseiller iud.-4 de prendre 
rule which I have begun to explain seems to me very easy to 
regie f. expliquer a 

be understood. You see that I have not been mistaken on the 
* saisir se tromper ind.-4 

affairs which I had foreseen you would have in hand. How very 

que * * combien 

few ships have been built in England within these fifteen years. 
pen de se construire ind.-4 depuis * 



CHAPTER VI. 

OF PREPOSITIONS. 

We have seen, in giving the definition of the 
preposition (p. 290), that its chief use was to put 
into a state of relation the two terms between which 
stands the preposition. 

In this chapter we will consider the prepositions 
relatively to their government, their use with the 
article, and their repetition before substantives. 

§i- 

Of the Government of Prepositions. 

Some prepositions govern nouns without the 
help of another preposition, as 

devant la maison before the house 

hormis son jr ere except his brother 

sans son epee without his sword 

others govern the nouns with the help of the pre- 
position de, as 

pres de la maison near the house 

a Vinsu de son fr ere unknown to his brother 

au-dessus du pont above the bridge 



384 GENERAL SYNTAX 

These four, jusque, par rapport, quant, and sanf, 
govern the preposition a, as 

jusqu\tu mois prochuin till the next month 

quant a moi as for me 

Practice alone can teach these different regimens. 

Rule. — A noun may be governed by two prepo- 
sitions, provided they do not require different 
regimens ; we may say 

celui qui ecrit sehn les circonstances he who writes according to cir- 
pour et contre un parti, est un cumstances, both for and 
homme weprisable against a party, is a vsry con- 

temptible man 

but it would be wrong to say 

celui qui ecrit en faveur et contre un parti, etc. 

because en faveur requires the preposition de 

Rule. — Prepositions which, with their regimen, 
express a circumstance, are generally placed as 
nearly as possible to the word to which, that cir- 
cumstance relates. 

EXAMPLES. 

on voit des persomies qui, avec we see persons who, with a great 

beaucoup d'esprit, commettent deal of wit, commit very great 

de tres-grandes f aides faults 

fax envoye a- la poste/es lettres que I have sent to the post-office the 

vous avez ecrites letters which you have written 

vroyez-vous pouvoir ramener par do you think you can reclaim, by 

la douceur ces esprits egares ? gentleness, those mistaken 

people ? 

If we change the place of these prepositions, we 
shall find that the sentences will become equivocal. 

EXERCISE. 

I was near the (Royal Exchange) when that poor man fell 
ind.-'2 Bourse f. tomber ind.-3 

senseless on the ground. Did you not appear before the 

pave m. * 3 nel pas 4paraitre inf. -3 2 
magistrates a fortnight ago ? You are quite mis- 

y avoir quinze jours imper. > * * grandement se 



OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 



38,: 



taken. Truly, you mean that I labour under 

se tromper ind.-l vouloir dire on m 'avoir ind.-l induire 

a mistake ; yes, Sir. I am very happy to hear it ; as for 
en erreur inf. -3 de apprendre le quant a 

me, I am not so proud, and a little more candid, therefore, I will tell 

fier sincere 

you confidentially, that my case* has been put off till the next 

affaire f. r envoy er inf. -3 a 2 

month. What do you think of our Voltaire ? 1 believe he was 
1 que ce ind.-2 

a very learned, but contemptible author. Why ? Because he 
1 3 tres 2 

wrote both for and against religion. Then it is here the 
ecrire ind.-4 * art. 

case to say, that a man however learned he may be, sometimes com- 

de 
mits very great errors. A misguided child would sooner be brought 
de f. 2 1 2 rentrerl 

back to his duty by lenient than by harsh means. 

daw * art. m. art douceur f. art. rigueurf. * 

§n. 

The Use of the Article with Prepositions. 

Some prepositions require the article before their 
regimen ; others do not ; and others again, some- 
times admit, sometimes reject it. 

Rule I. — When the following prepositions are 
followed by a substantive, they generally require 
the article after them 



avant 
apres 
chex 
dans 


depuis 
devant 
derriere 
durant 


envers 
excepte 
hors 
hormis 


nonobstant 
parmi 
pendant 
pour 


selon 
suivant 
touchant 
vers 


avant Vaurore I chez le prince 
apres la promenade \ dans la maison 


| envers les pauvres 
J devant Veglise, etc. 


There are a few exceptions, 


as 


avant terme 
avant midi 


1 avt 
\ a P 


int diner 
res diner 

S 


1 pour lit 
| depuis r 


une paillasse 
ri/tuit, etc. 



386 GENERAL SYNTAX 

Rule II. — A noun governed by the preposition 
en, is not, in general, preceded by the article, as 

en ville, en campagne, en extase, en songe, en pieces, etc. 

Remark. — Uarmte est entree en campagne, means 
the army has taken the field ; but Mr. N. est alle a 
la campagne, means Mr. N. is gone into the 
country. 

Rule III. — These eleven prepositions, a, de, avec, 
contre, entre, malgre, outre, par, pour, sur, sans, 
sometimes admit, sometimes reject the article before 
their regimen. 

If we say with the article, in a definite sense : 

jouer sur le velours 

St. Paul veut de la subordination entre ]&femme et le mari 
sans les passions oil serait le merite ? 

we say without the article, in an indefinite sense : 

etre sur pied ; un peu defacons ne gate rien entre mari etfemme 
vivre sans passions, &est vivre sans plaisirs et sans peines 



I am sorry to say that I shall not have time to come and 
de vous dire art. de * 

see you before the latter end of the next week. Indeed, 

2 1 dernier. jour pi. pr. art. 2 f. 1 

you must be very much engaged. Pray 

2 falloir que 1 imper. subj.-l bien * occuper inf.-Sje vousprie 3 
tell me how you spend your time in the country ? I go to bed 
1 2 passer a f. aller se coucher 

early, and get up before day-break, then I have a good run, and 

se lever alors faire course f. 

after my walk, I come home, where I eat a hearty break- 

ma f. revenir a art. maison f. faire excellent 

fast. And after your breakfast ? I never take any thing else 
m. 1 ne prendre * 2 1 

before noon, and wait patiently till dinner time. And 

pro. attendre jusqu'au * 



OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 



387 



after dinner, do you go out again ? I take a ride, and sometimes 

ressortir monter a cheval 

[ come to town, where I have the pleasure of seeing you. 
alter en de inf -1 

Repetition of the Prepositions. 

Rule I. — The prepositions de, a, e?i, and some 
other monosyllable prepositions, must be repeated 
before all the nouns which they govern, as 



voyons qui I'emportera de vous, de 
lui, ou de moi 

die a de Vhonnetete, de la douceur, 
des graces, et de V esprit 

la hi, que Dieu a gravee au fond 
de mon cceur, rrtinstruit de tout 
ce que je dois a Vauteur de man 
etre, au prochain, a moi-meme 

en Asie, en Europe, en Afrique, 
et jusqu'en Amerique, on trouve 
le mime prejuge 



let us see which of us will excel, 
you, he, or I 

she has politeness, sweetness, 
grace, and abilities 

the law which God has deeply 
engraven on my heart, instructs 
me in every thing I owe to the 
author of my being, to my 
neighbour, and to myself 

in Asia, in Europe, in Africa, and 
even in America, we find the 
same prejudice 

Rule II. — The other prepositions, especially those 
of two syllables, are generally repeated before 
nouns which have meanings totally different ; but 
not in general, before nouns, that are nearly sy no- 
il imous. 

EXAMPLES. 



rlen n'est moins selon Dieu et selon 

le monde 
cette action est contre Vhonneur et 

contre toute espece de principes 

But we ought to say 

ilperdsa jeunesse dans la mollesse 

et la volupte 
notre hi ne condamne personne sans 

V avoir entendu et examine 



nothing is less according to God 
and according to the world 

that action is contrary to honour, 
and to every kind of principle 



he wastes his youth in effeminacy 

and pleasure 
our laws condemn nobody without 

having heard and examined 

him 

EXERCISE. 

The eastern question which was laid be- 

1 d'orient 3 — f . 2 s'agiter pres. ind. comp. with to he 



388 GENERAL SYNTAX 

tvveen Mebemet Ali, the Pacha of Egypt, and the great Sultan oi 

* 

Constantinople, was of so serious a nature, that it has induced 

— 14 grave 52 — f . 3 f . engager inf. -3 

the four powers, viz. : England, Russia, Austria, and 

puissance * art. art. — ie f. art. Autriche art. 

Prussia, to sign between (themselves) the famous treaty of July, in 

— e elles 

order to check the ambition of the Turkish governor. I was 
a fin de reprimer — f. pr. art. 2 — neur 1 

afraid (it would have kindled) a general war, not only 

craindre ind.-2 quHl rtenfut resulte f. hid. -7 2 f 1 

in Europe, but also in Asia, Africa, and perhaps in America. 

— — ie prep. — que — ique 

The present Sultaness is said to have politeness, 

que 2 3 Sultane on dire ir\d.~l 1 ind.-l 4 pr. art. f. 

sweetness, grace, and abilities. Could you 

pr. art. f. pr. art. f. pr. art. esprit m. >* 3 

believe it, any crowned head is always (every thing) ; 
croire cond.-l 2 1 tout le I 3 f.-pl. 2 parfait 

it is lovely, beautiful, amiable, wonderful, and often against truth, 
f. pi. agreable 
justice, and equity, it unites all the good qualities. Such is the 

f. pi. reunir — te f* 

world. (In my estimation) (there are a good many) who far 

selon moi y en avoir beaucoup imper. 

from acting according to God and their conscience, act always 
de inf.-l — ind.-l 

contrary to honour, and to every kind of principle. 

contre * art. prep. * tout espece f. — pe 



CHAPTER VII. 

OF THE ADVERBS. 

Place of Adverhs. 

Rule I. — With the simple tenses, the adverb is 
generally placed after the verb, and with the com- 



OF THE ADVERBS. 389 

pound tenses, between the auxiliary and the par- 
ticiple. 

EXAMPLES. 

I'hcmme le plus eclaire est ordinaire- the man who is most learned is 

ment celui qui pense le plus generally he who thinks most 

modestement de lui-meme modestly of himself 

avez-vous jamais vu un pedant plus have you ever seen a pedant more 

absurde el plus vain ? absurd and more vain ? 

Compound adverbs, and adverbial expressions are 
placed always after the verb, as 

c'est a la mode that is fashionable 

il a agi avec prudence he has acted prudently 

Adverbs denoting time in an indeterminate man- 
ner, are likewise placed after the verb, 

EXAMPLES. 

il eutfallu se lever plus matin it would have been necessary to 

rise earlier 
on a vu cela autrefois that has been seen formerly 

Exceptions. 

1. Adverbs of order, and those which express a 
determinate time, are placed either before or after 
the verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

nous devons premierement faire we ought first, to do our duty ; 

noire devoir; secondement, secondly, enjoy lawful plea- 

chercher les plaisirs permis sures 

aujourd'hui ilfait beau ; il pleuvra to-day, it is fine ; it will rain per- 

peuUetre demain haps to-morrow 

2. The adverbs comment, oil, (foil, par ou, com- 
Men, pourquoi, quand, are always placed before the 
verb which they modify. 

EXAMPLES. 

comment vous portez-vous ? how do you do ? 

oil allez-vous ? whither are you going ? 

il ne sail comment s'y prendre he does not know how to set 

about it 



GENERAL SYNTAX 



Rule II. — When an adverb modifies an adjective, 
it is placed before that adjective. 



c'est une femme fort belle, tres- 
sensible, et infniiment sage 



she is a woman very beautiful, 
of great sensibility, and infi- 
nitely prudent 



Rule III. — Adverbs of quantity and comparison, 
and the three adverbs of time, souvent, toujours, 
jamais, are placed before the other adverbs. 



EXAMPLES. 



si poliment, fort poliment 

tres-heureusement 

le plus adroitement 

ils ne seront jamais etroitement unis 

ils sont toujours ensemble 



so politely, very politely 

very happily 

the most skilfully 

they never will be intimately 

united 
they are always together 



c'est souvent a Vimproviste quHl he often comes unexpectedly 



Souvent may, however, be preceded by an adverb 
of quantity or comparison, as si souvent, assez 
souvent, fort souvent, plus souvent, moins souvent, 
trop souvent. 

Remark. — When adverbs of quantity and com- 
parison meet together in a sentence, the following 
is the order which custom has established. 



si peu 


| Men peu 


beaucoup* trop 


tant mieux 


trop peu. 


Men plus 


beaucoup plus 


tant pis 


tres peu 


{ Men davantage 


beaucoup moins 


etc. 



When bien is before another adverb, it means very, 
much, etc. as in the preceding and following 
examples. 

Men assez quite enough I frapper Men fort strike very hard 

bien mains much less | bien tard very late 



* Beaucoup is not susceptible of being modified by any adverb preceding, thus 
tres beaucoup, trop beaucoup, etc. is never said. 



OF THE ADVERBS. 391 

but when it is placed after the abverb, it signifies 
well, as 

assez bien pretty well fort bien very well 

moins bien not so well aussi bien as well 

The above rules have been sufficiently exem- 
plified in page 305. 

EXERCISE. 

Whosoever (is not aware of) his own ignorance, ought to 

nepas reconnaitre * — £ . devoir cond.-l 

go to school again. Have you not always some non- 

retourner a art. m. * quelque niai- 

sense or other to talk about. Oh ! I see, sir, that truth 

serie f . 2 * nouveau 1 conter art. f. 2 

perhaps offends you, (if such is the case) I really do 

1 blesser 3 s'iZ en est ainsi 1 sincerement 5 * en 3 

beg your pardon, but before parting, allow me to 

demander 4 bien 2 — 6 de nous separer de 

tell you, that I have never met in my life a more absurd, 

2 1 rencontrer inf. -3 de f. 1 — eS 

vain, and conceited pedagogue than the individual whom I 

adv. — adv. svffisant — 2 que — auquel 

am addressing at this moment. Begone, and never let 

s'adresser md.-l dans — m. se retirer impera. ne jamais 
me see your face again. Between you and me, my good 

revoir subj.-l * * 

friend, a quarrel should be quite out of fashion, (it was not) 

f. saison f. rten etrepas ind.-2 

so formerly in dark ages, but now at (this present state) 

ces temps de barbarie aujourd'hui ail centre 

of an enlightened civilisation, especially in this country, a challenge 
2 -f. 1 3 

might be dangerously proposed, and if accepted (very 

y avoir du danger 1 cond.-l de inf.-l 2 avoir lieu ind.-2 

likely attended by very) unpleasant consequences ; for 

en pouvoir etre cond.-l 2 fatal 3 art. suite f. pi. 1 par 

instance, look at the Lord C — and the poor Captain T — : but 
exemple voir * capitaine aussi 

I most earnestly hope that nothing of the kind will happen 
bien sincerement desirer * semblable * rtavriver subj.-l 

between you and me • till now, we have been together on the most 

dans 



392 GENERAL SYNTAX 

friendly terms, and I trust we shall ever continue co 
ttroit intimite f. esperer que toujours 

love each other like two brothers. Farewell. 
Maimer 



CHAPTER VIII. 

OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 
Government of Conjunctions. 

The conjunctions which unite sentences to one 
another, are followed, either by the infinitive, the 
indicative, or the subjunctive. 

Conjunctions followed by an infinitive, are first, 
those which are distinct from prepositions only, 
because they are followed by a verb, as il faut se 
reposer apres avoir travaillL one ought to rest after 
having laboured. Secondly, those which have the 
preposition de after them, as je travaille a/in de 
vous surpasses I work that I may surpass you. 

EXERCISE. 

They were going to spend a few days in town, only 

ne * ind.-2 * passer * quelques a art. que 

that they might find themselves with more pleasure in 

•pour * * se retrouver inf.-l de art. 

their charming solitude. Many persons work only (in order to) 

ne que afi?i de 
acquire consideration and riches ; but the honest 

de art. — pr. art. 2 et 

sensible man spends so much time in study, only to be 

ne employer tant de a art que pour 

useful to his fellow- creatures. I (shall make known) to you the 
semblahles devoiler 

plot which your enemies have laid in darkness, in order 

trame f. ourdir art. tenebres f . pi. 

to warn you against their artifices. 
premunir 



OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 6V3 

With the Indicative Mood. 

Those that govern the indicative are: Men entendu 
que, a conditio?! que, a la charge que, de meme que, 
ainsi que, aussi bien que, autant que, non plus que, 
outre que, parce que, attendu que, vu que, puisque, 
lorsque, pendant que, tandis que, durant que, tant 
que, peut-etre que, to which may be added comme, 
comme-si, quand, pourquoi, etc. These conjunctions 
are followed by the indicative, because the principal 
sentence which they are uniting with the incidental 
one, expresses the affirmation in a direct, positive, 
and independent manner. 

Observation. — There are six conjunctions the use 
of which varies according to the meaning expressed 
by the principal sentence, viz. si non que, si ce nest 
que, de sorte que, en sorte que, tellement que, 
de manure que. We say je ne lid ai repondu 
autre chose, si non que j avals execute ses ordres, I 
made him no other answer, but that I had executed 
his orders ; because the first verb expresses a posi- 
tive affirmation. But we ought to say, je ne veux 
autre chose, si non que vous travailliez avec plus 
d'ardeur, I desire nothing else, but that you should 
work with greater ardour. 

N. B. — In the first sentence jai repondu expresses 
a positive affirmation, and in the second, je veux 
expresses a command or desire. 

EXERCISE. 

When you have a more extended knowledge of geometry and 
ind.-7 2 art. geometric f. 

algebra, I shall give you a few lessons on astronomy and 
pr. art. algebre f, * quelque de astronomie 

optics. Form your mind, heart, and taste, while you 

pr. optique pron. pron. 

are still young. Do not keep truth captive, though you 

encore retenir art. quand 

s2 



394 GENERAL SYNTAX 

should (draw upon you) a cloud of enemies. I will give 
devoir cond.-l s'attirer nttee f. 

you this tine picture upon condition that you will keep it as a 
tableau m. a — conserver 

testimony of my friendship. 
temoignage m. 

The conjunctions which govern the subjunctive 
are soii que, sans que, quoique,jusqiia ce que, encore 
que, a moms que, pourvu que> suppose que, au cas 
que, avant que, non pas que, afin que, de peur que, 
de crainte que, and a few others. They are followed 
by the subjunctive because they always follow a 
principal sentence implying doubt, wish, ignorance. 

EXERCISE. 

You know too well the value of time, to make 

connaitre prix m. art. pour que etre 2 

it necessary to tell you to (make a good use of it.) Study only 
il 1 de de bien employer 

great models, lest those which are but middling should 
art. de peur que * mediocre ne 

spoil your taste, before it be entirely formed, I (make not 
gdter subj.-l ne 

the least doubt) that your method will succeed, provided it be 
douter nullement f. ne * subj.-l f. 

well known. Several phenomena of nature are easy (to be 

art. (by the 

explained^, supposing the principle of universal gravitation to 

active) art. 2 f. 1 * 

be true, 
subj.-l 



PARTICULAR SYNTAX. 395 



PART III. 



PARTICULAR OR IDIOMATICAL SYNTAX 

OF 

THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 



In this third part, the Particular Syntax, the learner 
being supposed to have thoroughly understood the 
two foregoing ones, will find very little assistance 
in the following exercises ; therefore, we should 
advise him to pay more and more attention to his 
grammatical rules, and now and then, when he 
meets with some difficulties, to make use of a good 
French and English Dictionary. 



CHAPTER I. 
OF THE SUBSTANTIVE, 

The substantive has three functions in the dis- 
course ; it is in subject, apostrophe 9 or regimen. 

The substantive is in subject, whenever it is that 
of which something is affirmed. When we say 
Voiseau vole, the bird flies ; le lion ne vole pas, the 
lion does not fly ; the substantives oiseau and lion 
are subjects, because it is affirmed of the first that 
it flies, and of the second that it does not fly. 



396 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

It is to the substantive in subject that every thing 
relates in the sentence. In this : un homme juste 
et ferme nest tbranle ni par les clameurs dune popu- 
lace iujuste, ni par les menaces dun fier tyran ; 
quand meme le monde brise stcroulerait, il en serait 
frappt, mais non pas emu, the adjectives juste and 
ferme modify the substantive subject homme, and 
all the rest modify un homme juste et ferme. 

EXERCISE. 

1. A king, who is inaccessible to men, is inaccessible to truth 
also, and passes his life in a savage (2) inhuman (3) grandeur (I) ; 
as he is continually afraid of being imposed upon, he always una- 
voidably is and deserves to be so ; besides, he is at the mercy of slan- 
derers and tale-bearers, a base malicious tribe who feed upon venom, 
and invent evil rather than cease to injure. 

2. The good which a man does is never lost ; if men forget it, the 
gods remember and reward it. 

(I.) Also, le aussi) inhuman, et farouche; as he is afraid, craignant; being 
imposed upon, etre trompe; is, le etre; to, de ; so, le; besides, de plus; tale- 
bearers, rapporteur ; tribe, nation ; feed upon, se nourrir de ; to injure, de nuire. 

(2.) A man, on; remember, s'en souvenir. 

The substantive is in apostrophe whenever it is 
the person or thing addressed to, as rots, peuples, 
terre, mer, et vous cieux, ecoutez-moi! In this sen- 
tence, the substantives rois, peuples, terre, mer, and 
cieux, are in apostrophe. 

Observation. — It is only in a strongly marked 
oratorical impulse that the speech is directed to 
inanimate beings. 

EXAMPLE OF A BEAUTIFUL APOSTROPHE. 

O Hippias ! Hippias ! I shall never see thee again ! O my dear 
Hippias ! it is T, cruel and relentless, who taught thee to despise 
death. Cruel Gods ! ye prolonged my life only that I might see the 
death of Hippias ! O my dear child, whom I had brought up with so 
much care, I shall see thee no more. O dear shade ! cull me to the 
banks of the Styx ; the light grows hateful to me : it is thou only, 
my dear Hippias, whom I wish to see again. Hippias ! Hippias! O 
my dear Hippias ! all I now live for is to pay my last duty to thy 
ashes. 



OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 397 

Never, ne plus ; again * ; and * relentless, moi impitoyable ; taught, apprendre 
ind.-4; prolonged, prolonger ind.-l .; only that I, etc., pour me fair e ; brought up, 
nonrrir, ind.-4; with so, etc., et qui me couter ind.-4; shade, ombre; hanks, 
rive ; grows hateful, etre odieux; all I., is to, ne vivre que pour; pay, rendre; 
ashes, cendre. 

The substantive is in regimen when it is governed 
by another word ; now a substantive may be go- 
verned either by another substantive, by an adjec- 
tive, by a verb, or by a preposition, as la loi de 
Dieu, the law of God ; utile a lhom?ne 9 useful to 
man ; aimer son prochain, to love one's neighbour; 
chez son plre, at his father's. 

N.B. — We shall speak, in its proper place, of the 
regimen of adjectives, verbs, and prepositions, and 
confine ourselves here to what relates to the sub- 
stantive. 

In French, a substantive cannot be governed by 
another substantive, but by the help of a prepo- 
sition. This preposition is generally rfe, as la dif- 
Jiculte de Ventreprise, the difficulty of the under- 
taking ; but sometimes also, a and pour are made 
use of, as V abandon a ses passions 9 the giving way 
to one's passions ; le gout pour le plaisir, propensity 
for pleasure. 

General Rule. — Of two substantives, of which 
the one is governing and the other governed, it is 
the governing one that generally goes before the 
other. 

EXAMPLE. 

la beaute des sentimens, la violence the beauty of sentiments, the 

des passions, la grandeur des violence of passions, the gran- 

evmemens, et les succes mira- fleur of events, and the pro- 

culeux des grandes epees des digious successes of the great 

heros, tout cela m'entraine comme swords of heroes, all this trans- 

une petite fille ports me like a little girl 

Observation. — We shall, in the next chapter, 
mention those cases in which this order is inverted ; 
we shall only observe here that this same order is 



398 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

not followed in English in two instances; first, 
when two substantives are joined by an s and an 
apostrophe, placed after the first, thus \s, as the 
king's palace; secondly, when the two substantives 
form a compound word, as silk-stockings. 

EXERCISE. 

1 . The plants of the gardens, the animals of the forest, the minerals of 
the earth, the meteors of the sky, must all concur to store the mind 
with inexhaustible 2 variety ! 

2. Nothing was heard but the warbling of birds or the soft breath 
of the zephyrs sporting in the branches of the trees, or the murmur of 
a lucid 2 rill 1 , falling from the rocks, or the songs of the young 
swains who attended Apollo. 

3. A smiling boy was at the same time caressing a lap-dog, which 
is his mother' s favourite because it pleases the child. 

4. There are several gold and silver mines in this beautiful country, 
but the inhabitants, plain, and happy in their plainness, do not even 
deign to reckon gold and silver among their riches. 

(1.) Must, devoir) concur, concourir a; store with, enrichir par ; inexhaustible, 
inepuisable. 

(2.) Nothing.. but, on ne plus que; breath, haleine; sporting (which sported), 
se jouer ind. 3; branches, rameaux ; lucid rill, eau claire; falling (which fell); 
swains, berger; attended, suivre ind. -2. 

(3) Boy, enfant; smiling, d'un air riant; was caressing, caresser ind.- 2 ; lap- 
dog, bichon ; pleases, amuser. 

(4.) There are, y avoir; plain, simple; plainness, simplicity ; deign, daigner; 
to * reckon, compter ; among, parmi. 



CHAPTER II. 
OF THE ARTICLE. 



We liave already established as a general rule, 
that the article always agrees in gender and num- 
ber with the substantive which it precedes. We 
shall here give two more. 

General Rules. 

1 . In French the article always agrees in gender 
and number with the substantive to which it belongs. 



OF THE ARTICLE. 399 

2. When the article is used, it ought to be re- 
peated before every one of the substantives, whe- 
ther in subject or in regimen. 

EXAMPLES. 

l'esprit, la grace, et la beaute wit, grace, and beauty captivate 

nous captivent us 

Vignorance est la mere de l'erreur, ignorance is the mother of error, 

de l'admiration, et des pre- admiration, and prejudices of 

ventions de toute espece all kinds 

EXERCISE. 

1. Innocence of manners, sincerity, obedience, and a horror of vice, 
inhabit this happy region. 

2. The silence of the night, the calmness of the sea, the trembling 
light of the moon shed on the surface of tbe water, and the dusky 
azure of the sky, besprinkled with glittering stars, served to heighten 
the beauty of the scene. 

(1.) Manners, moeurs; a * art. ,• region, pays. 

(2.) Trembling, tremblant; shed on, repandu sur ; dusky, sombre; besprinkled 
with, parseme de) heighten, rehausser; scene, spectacle. 

3. The place of the article, every time it is used, 
is always before the substantives, so that if they be 
preceded by an adjective, even modified by an 
adverb, it ought to be placed at the head, but 
nevertheless, after the prepositions, if there be 
any. 

EXAMPLES. 

la plus riche heritie're ne fait pas the richest heiress does not al- 
toujours la plus aimable femme ways make the most amiable 

wife 

dans les beaux jours de la litre- in tbe bright days of French lite- 
rature Franchise, on respectait rature, religion and the king 
egalement la religion et le roi were equally respected 

Exception. — The adjective tout, and these qua- 
lities, monsieur, madame, monseigneur, displace the 
article, which, in this case, takes its station between 
these words and the substantives. We ought to say : 
tout le monde, monsieur le due, madame la comtesse, 
monseigneur I'archeveque de, etc. 



400 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

EXERCISE. 

1. A true poet estimates the happiness and misery of every con- 
dition, observes the power of all the passions in all their combinations, 
and traces the changes of the human mind, as they are modified by 
various institutions and accidental influences of climate and custom, 
from the sprightliness of infancy to the despondence of decrepitude. 

2. Almost all the passions which operate with great violence on 
the mind, and drive it to the most dangerous extremes, concurred in 
raising and fomenting this unhappy quarrel. 

(1.) Estimates, apprecier; as, a mesure que ; various, art. divers; custom, cou- 
tume\>\.) from, depuis; sprightliness, vivucite; to, jusqu'a ; despondence, abatie- 
ment. 

(2.) Operate, agir ; great, beaucoup de; drive, porter a; raising, faire naitre; 
fomenting, fomenter. 

General Principle. 

We ought to use the article before all substantives 
common, taken in a determinate sense, unless there 
be another word performing the same office ; but it 
is not to be used before those that are taken in an 
indeterminate sense. 

This being premised ? we shall now point out the 
cases in which we ought to make use of the article. 

Rule I. — The article essentially accompanies all 
substantives common which denote a whole species 
of things, or determinate things. 

EXAMPLES. 

1'homme se repalt trop souvent de man too often feeds himself with 

chimeres chimeras 

les hommes a imagination sont men of a fanciful disposition are 

toujour 's malheureux always unhappy 

1'homme dont vous parlez est tres- the man you speak of is very 

instruit learned 

In the first example the word homme is taken in 
a general sense ; it denotes a collective universality. 
In the second, les hommes a imagination denote a 
particular class only. In the third, V homme denotes 
but one individual, it being restricted by the inci- 
dental proposition dont vous parlez. 

Observation. — In English, the article is not used 



OF THE ARTICLE. 401 

before substantives taken in a general sense, as man 
was born for society ; nor before those denoting a 
less general class, as men of genius, women of sound 
understanding ; nor again before some substantives 
wliich are taken rather in a determinate than in a 
general sense, as I shall go to court this evening. 



1. Elegance, the most visible image of fine taste, the moment it 
appears, is universally admired ; men disagree about the other con- 
stituent parts of beauty, but they all unite without hesitation to 
acknowledge the power of elegance. 

2. Men 2 of superior genius, while 1 they * see 3 the rest of man- 
kind painfully struggling to comprehend obvious truths, glance 
themselves through * the most remote 2 consequences 1 like light- 
ning through * a path that cannot be traced. 

3. The man who lives under an habitual sense of the divine 
presence, keeps up a perpetual cheerfulness of temper, and enjoys, 
every moment, the satisfaction of thinking himself in company with 
his dearest and best of friends. 

(1.) (From) the moment, {du) ; (that) elegance the most, etc. appears, {quel'); 
it f. is, etc. ; fine, delicat; appears, se montrer; disagree about, differer sur; con- 
stituent (which constitute); hesitation, hesiter. 

(2.) While men of (a) superior genius see, etc., they glance, etc. ; while, tandis 
que; struggling, se tour menter pour ; glance, penetrer d'un coup-d'ceil ; lightning, 
foudre f. ; path, espace ; be traced, en mesurer. 

(3.) Under, dans; sense, conviction; keep up, conserver ; perpetual, constant; 
cheerfulness, gaite ; temper, caractere; enjoys, jouir de : of thinking, se croire; 
with, de. 

Rule II. — The article is put before substantives 
taken in a sense of extract, or denoting only a part 
of a kind ; but it is omitted if they be preceded by 
an adjective or a word of quantity. 

EXAMPLES. 

du pain et de l'eau me feraient some bread and water would 

pluisir please me 

je vis hier des savans, qui ne pen- I yesterday saw some learned 
sent pas comme vous men, who do not think as you 

do 
fachetai hier beaucoup de livres I bought yesterday many books 
que de livres fachetai hier ! how many books did I not buy 

yesterday ! 

Observation. — Among tlie words of quantity must 



402 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

be reckoned plus, mains, pas, point, and jamais . 
il riy eat jamais plies de lumieres, there never were 
more lights ; il y a mains d habitants a Paris qita 
Landres, there are fewer inhabitants in Paris than 
in London ; je ne manque pas oVamis, 1 do not want 
friends. 

Exception. — Bien is the only word of quantity 
that ought to be followed by the article. We say, 
il a bien de V esprit, he has a great deal of wit ; elle 
a Men de la grace, she has a great deal of graceful- 
ness about her. 

Observation, — The sense of extract is marked in 
English by the word some, or any, either expressed 
or understood, which answers to quelques, a par- 
titive adjective, and consequently to du, des, which 
are elegantly used instead of quelques. 

These expressions, des petits-maitres, des sages- 
femmes, des petits-pdtes, etc., are not exceptions, 
because in such cases, the substantives are so far 
united with the adjectives as to form but one and 
the same word. We ought likewise to say, le 
propre des belles actions, les sentimens des anciens 
philosophes, etc , because in these parts of expres- 
sions, the substantives are taken in a general sense. 

EXERCISE. 

1. We could not cast our eyes on either shore, without seeing 
opulent cities, country-houses agreeably situated, lands yearly covered 
with a golden 2 harvest 1, meadows full of flocks and herds, husband- 
men bending under the weight of the fruits, and shepherds who made 1 
all the echoes 5 round them 6 repeat 2 the sweet sounds 3 of their 
pipes and flutes 4. 

2. Provence and Languedoc produce oranges, lemons, figs, olives, 
almonds, chesmds, peaches, apricots, and grapes of an uncommon 
sweetness. 

3. The man who has never seen this pure light, is as * blind as one 
who is born blind ; he dies without having seen any thing ; at most, 
he perceives but glimmering and false lights, vain shadows and phantoms 
that have nothing of reality. 



OF THE ARTICLE. 403 

4. Among the Romans, those who were convicted of having used 
illicit 2 or unworthy 2 means 1 to obtain command, were excluded 
from it for ever. 

5. Those who govern are like the celestial 2 bodies 1, which have 
great splendour and no rest. 

6. What beauty, sweetness, modesty, and at the same time, what 
nobleness and greatness of soul ! 

7. Themistocles, in order to ruin Aristides, made use of many ma- 
noeuvres which would have covered him with infamy in the eyes of 
posterity, had not 3 the eminent services 1 which he rendered his 
country 2 blotted out 4 that stain. 

8. The consequences of great passions are blindness of mind and 
depravity of heart. 

9. Noblemen should never forget that their high birth imposes 
great duties on * them. 

(1.) Could, pouvoir, ind.-2 ; shore, rivage : seeing, apergevoir ; yearly, tous les arts : 
covered with, qui se couvrir de; flocks and herds, troupeau:' husbandmen, la- 
boureur; bending, qui etre accable; weight, poids ; shepherds, bergers ; pipes, 
chalumeau ; round them, d'alentour. 

(3.) Who is born blind, aveugle-ne; having, ri avoir inf.-2 ; without, ne jamais; 
any thing, Hen; at most, tout au plus; perceives, apergevoir; glimmering, 
sombre ; lights, lueur ; reality, reel. 

(4. ) Used, se servir {etre) ; for, pour ; command, emploi ; means, moyens ; were, 
ind -2 ; from it, en. 

(5.) A great, beaucoup de; splendour, eclat; no rest (that have no rest), repos. 

(6 ) What, que de. 

(7.) Ruin, perdre; made use of many, employer Men ; covered with, cond.-3-cfe ; 
infamy, opprobre; in, a; had not, si; rendered, ind.-3-a, blotted out, effacer 
cond.-3; stain, tache. 

9.) Noblemen, gentilkomme; should, devoir, ind.-l 

Rule III. — This article is put before proper 
names of countries, regions, rivers, winds, and 
mountains. 

EXAMPLES. 

la France a les Pyrennees et la France is bounded on the south 
Mediterranee au sud, la Suisse by the Pyrenees and the Medi» 
et la Savoie a Test, les Pays- terranean, on the east by Swit- 
Bas au nord, et l'ocean a l'ouest zeriand and Savoy, on the north 

by the Netherlands, and on the 
west by the ocean 
la Tamise, le Rhone, 1'aquilon, the Thames, the Rhone, the north 
les Alpes, le Cantal wind, the Alps, the Cantel 

Observation. — We say by apposition, le mont 
Parnasse, le mont Valerien, etc., lejleuve Don, etc.; 
but we say, la montagne de Tarare, etc. ; la riviere 
de Seine, etc. We ought not to say, le Jleuve du 
11 hone, but simply le Rhone. 



404 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

EXERCISE. 

1. Europe is bounded on the north by the Frozen Ocean ; on the 
south, by the Mediterranean sea, which separates it from Africa - f on 
the east, by the continent of Asia; on the west, by the Atlantic 
Ocean. It contains the following 2 states 1 : on the north, Norway, 
Sweden, Denmark, and Russia ; in the middle, Poland, Prussia, Ger- 
many, the United Provinces, the Netherlands, France, Switzerland, Bo- 
hemia, Hungary, the British Isles ; on the south, Spain, Portugal, 
Italy, Turkey in Europe. 

2. The principal rivers in Europe are : the Wolga, the Don or 
Tonais, and the Boristhenes or Nieper in Muscovy ; the Danube, the 
Rhine, and the Elbe in Germany ; the Vistula or Wezel in Poland ; 
the Loire, tbe Seine, the Rhone, and the Garonne in France ; the 
Ebro, the Tagus, and the Douro in Spain ; the Po in Italy ; the 
Thames and the Severn in England ; and the Shannon in Ireland. 

3. The principal mountains in Europe are the Daarne-ficlds be- 
tween Norway and Sweden ; Mount Krapel between Poland and 
Hungary; the Pyrennean mountains between France and Spain: the 
Alps, which divide France and Germany from Italy. 

4. The bleak north wind never blows here, and the heat of sum- 
mer is tempered by the cooling zephyrs, which come to refresh the 
air towards the middle of the day. 

(1.) Bounded, borne) on, a; north, nord ; frozen ocean, mer glaciate', south, 
sud or midi ; Mediterranean sea. Mediterranee ; east, est or orient ; west, ouest or 
Occident) Norway, Norvege; Sweden, Suede; Denmark, Danemarc; Poland, 
Pologne; Prussia, Prusse-, Germany, Allemagne; Netherlands, Pays-Bas; Swit- 
zerland, Suisse ; Bohemia, Boheme ; Hungary, la Hongrie ; British Isles, ties Brit- 
tanniques ; Turkey in, Turquie de. 

(2.) Tagus, Tage; Thames, Tamise. 

(4.) Bleak, rigoureux; north wind, aquilon; heat, ardeur ; cooling, rafrai- 
chissant ; to refresh, adoucir. 

Exceptions. 

We do not use the article before the names of 
countries, 

1. When those countries have the names of their 
capitals, as Naples est un pays delicieux, Naples is 
a delightful country. 

2. When those names are governed by the prepo- 
sition en, as il est en France, lie is in France ; il est 
en Espagne, he is in Spain. 

3. When those names are governed by some 
preceding noun, as vins de France, French wines; 
noblesse d Angleterre, the English nobility. 



OP THE ARTICLE. 405 

4. Lastly, when we speak of those countries as of 
places we come, or are set off from, as je viens de 
France, I come from France ; f arrive d'ltalie, I 
am just arrived from Italy. But in this case, when 
we speak of the four parts of the world, the present 
practice is to make use of the article, as je viens 
de V Amerique, j 'arrive de fAsie. 



1. Naples may be called a paradise, from its beauty and fertility. 
From this track 2 some suppose 1 Virgil took the model of the 
Elysian 2 Fields 1. 

2. I have been prisoner in Egypt, as a * Phoenician : under that 
name I have long suffered, and under that name I have been set at 
liberty. 

3. He has received wines from France and Spain, silks from Italy, 
oil from Provence, wool from England. 

4. We set sail from Holland to go to the Cape of Good Hope. 

5. I was but just arrivedyrowi Russia, when I had the misfortune 
to lose my father. 

6. I had set off from America when my brother arrived there. 

(1.) From, a cause de] from this track, que c'est la ou\ some suppose, quelques 
personnes penser. 

(2.) Prisoner, captif; under (it is under); and under (and it is under). 
(4,) Set sail, partir ; to go, se rendre. 
(5.) I was but just, ne faire que. 
(6.) Set off, partir-, there, y. 

The article is also used before the names of coun- 
tries, either distant or little known, as la Chine, 
China ; le Japon, Japan ; le Mexique, Mexico ; and 
before those which have been formed from common 
nouns, as le Havre, le Perche, la Fleche, etc. 

Observation. — In English, the article is generally 
omitted before names of countries. 

Cases in which the Article is not used before the 
Nouns. 

Rule I. — The article is omitted before nouns 
common, when in using them, we do not say any- 
thing on the extent of their signification. 



406 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 



EXAMPLES. 

le sage rCa ni amour ni haine the wise man has neither love nor 

hatred 

Us ont renverse religion, morale, they have overturned religion, 
gouvernement. sciences, beaux- morality, government, sciences, 
arts, en un mot, tout ce qui fait fine arts ; in a word, every 
la gloire et la force oVun etat thing which makes the glory 

and strength of a state. 

Hence, we do not put the article before nouns : 
i. When they are in the form of a title or an 
address, as preface, preface ; livre premier, book 
the first ; chapitre dix, chapter the tenth ; il demeure 
rue Piccadilly^ he lives in Piccadilly ; quartier St. 
James, St. James'. 

2. When they are governed by the preposition 
en, as regarder en piiie, to look with pity ; vivre en 
roi, to live like, or as a king. 

3. When they are joined to the verbs avoir or 
/aire, as avoir peur, to be afraid ; /aire pitie, to look 
pitiful. 

4. When they are used as an apostrophe or inter- 
jection, as courage, soldats, tenez ferme ! courage, 
soldiers, stand firm ! 

5. When they serve to qualify a noun that pre- 
cedes them, as il est quelquefois plus qiihomme, he 
is sometimes more than man ; Monseigneur le due 
d'York, prince du sang royal d'Angleterre, his 
Royal Highness the Duke of York, prince of the 
blood royal of England. 

6« The article is not put before the substantive 
beginning an incidental sentence, which is a reflec- 
tion upon what has been said, as 

tons les peuples de la terre ont une all the nations of the earth have 
idee plus on moins developpee an idea more or less developed 
d'un Etre Supreme; preuveevi- of a Supreme Being; an evi- 
dente quele peckeorigine! n'apas dent proof that original sin 
tout-a-fait obscurci Ventendement has not totally obscured the 

understanding. 



OF THE ARTICLE. 407 

7. When they are under the government of the 
words genre, espece, sorte, and such like, as sorte de 
fruity a sort of fruit ; genre cfouvrage, a kind of 
work. 

EXERCISE. 

The highways are bordered with laurels, pomegranates, jessamines, 
and other trees which * are * always green, and always in bloom. 
The mountains are covered with flocks, which yield a fine wool 
which * is * sought after by all the known 2 nations 1 of the world. 

2. The fleets of Solomon made, under the conduct of the Phoe- 
nicians, frequent voyages to the land of Ophir and Tharsis (of the 
kingdom of Sophala, in Ethiopia), whence they returned at the end 
of three years, laden with gold, silver, ivory, precious 2 stones 1, and 
other kinds of merchandize. 

3. Cosily furniture 2 is not allowed there 1, nor magnificent attire, 
nor sumptuous feasts, nor gilded palaces. 

4. We considered with pleasure the extensive fields covered w 7 ith 
yellow ears of com, rich gifts of the fruitful Ceres. 

5. He was in a kind of ecstacy, when he perceived us. 

6. In the most corrupt age, he lived and died as a wise man*. 

7. Are you surprised that the worthiest 2 men 1 are but men, and 
betray some remains of the weakness of humanity, among the in- 
numerable snares and difficulties which are inseparable from royalty. 

8. He looked pitiful when we saw him after his disgrace. 

9. Hear then, O nations full of valour ! and you O chiefs, so wise 
and so united ! hear what I have * to * offer you. 

10. Out of this cavern issued, from time to time, a black 2 thick 3 
smoke 1, which made a sort of night at mid-day. 

(1.) Highways, chemin; with, de; laurels, lauriers; pomegranates, grenadiers ; 
in bloom, fleurir; yield, fournir ; wool, laine, pi. ; sought after, recherche. 

(2.) Fleets, flotte ; made, ind.-2 ; whence, d'ou; returned, revenir; end, bout; 
laden, charge; stones, pierre. 

(3.) Is not allowed there, on riy soujfre ni; furniture, meuble; costly, precieux ; 
attire, ornement; feasts, re-pas-. 

(4.) Extensive, vaste ; fields, campagne ; yellow, jaune ; ears, epi. 

(5.) In a kind of, comme en. 

(6.) Age, siecle. 

(7.) Betray, montrer ; remains, reste; snares, piege; difficulties, embarras. 

(8.) He looked pitiful, il nous fair e piiie. 

(10 ) Out of, de; issued, sortir ; black and thick, noir et epais; smoke, fumee; 
mid-day, milieu dujour. 

Rule IL — The article is not used, either before 
nouns preceded by the pronominal adjectives mon, 
ton, son, notre, votre^ leur, ce, nul, aiccim, chaque, 
tout (used for chaque), certain, plusieurs, tel, or 
before those which are preceded by a cardinal num- 
ber, without any relation whatever. 



408 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

EXAMPLES. 

nos mceurs mettent le prix a nos our manners set a value to our 

richesses riches 

toute nation a ses loix each nation has its laws 

cent ignorans doivent-ils lem- are a hundred blockheads to get 

porter sur un homme instruit the advantage oi one learned 

man ? 

EXERCISE. 

1. That good father was happy in his children, and his children 
were happy in him. 

2. These imitative 2 sounds 7 are the integral parts of all languages, 
and as their * fundamental basis. 

3. Every man has his foibles, his moments of humour, even his 
irregularities. 

4. Each plant has virtues which are peculiar to it, the knowledge 2 
of which 1 could not but be infinitely useful. 

5. In ajl his instructions he is careful to remember that grammar, 
logic, and rhetoric are three sisters that ought never to be disjoined. 

(2.) Are the integral parts, etre fondu ; of, dans; and as, et Us en sont comme. 
(4.) Peculiar, propres; to it, lui; could, cond.-l ; not but be, ne que. 
(5.) He is careful to remember, ne point per dre devue; ought, on devoir, ind.-2 ; 
to be disjoined, separer. 

Rule III. — Proper names of deities, men, animals, 
towns, and particular places, are without the article, 
but they take it when they are used in a limited 
sense. 

EXAMPLES. 

Dieu a cree le ciel et la terre God has made heaven and earth 

Jupiter etait le premier des dieux Jupiter was the first of the gods 

Bucephale etait le cheval d'Alex- Bucephalus was Alexander's 

andre horse 

Rome est une ville oVune grande Rome is a city of great beauty, 

beaute 

But we ought to say, le Dieu des Chretiens, the 
God of Christians; le Dieu de paix, the God of 
peace; le Jupiter d'Homere, Homer's Jupiter; le 
Bucephale d Alexandre, Alexander's Bucephalus ; 
Vancienne R.ome> ancient Rome ; la Rome moderne, 
modern Rome. 

If, in imitation of the Italians, we use the article 
before the names of painters and poets of that 
nation, except Michel- Ange and Raphael^ it is 



OF THE ARTICLE. 409 

because the expression is elliptical, the words 
peintre, poete, or seigneur, being understood. 



1. Jupiter, son of Saturn and Cibele or Ops, after having deposed 
his father from the throne, divided the paternal * inheritance with 
his two brothers Neptune and Pluto. 

On a dispute at a feast of the gods, between Juno, Pallas, and 
Venus, for the pre-eminence of beauty, Jupiter not being able to 
bring them to an agreement, referred the decision to Paris, a shep- 
herd of Mount Ida, with directions that a golden apple should be 
given to the fairest. Paris assigned to Venus the golden * reward *. 

3. God said : let there * be light, and there * was light. 

4. The Apollo di Belvidere and the Venus di Medicis are precious 
remains of antiquity. 

5. May and September are the two finest months of the year in 
the south of France. 

6. The God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, was the only true God. 

(1.) Deposed, chasser ; divided, enpartayer; inheritance, heritage. 

(2.) On, dans-, at a feast, qu'ily eut a, unfestin; being able, pouvoir; to bring 
to an agreement, accorder ; referred, renvoyer; directions, ordre; that a golden 
apple, etc, to give a golden apple to ; assigned, adjuger le ; reward, prix 

(3.) (Light be and light was). 

(6.) Only, seul. 



CHAPTER III. 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

§1- 

Of the Adjective with the Article. 

Rule I. — Adjectives taken substantively are, as 
substantives common, accompanied by the article, 
if the use made of them require it. 

EXAMPLE. 

les fous inventent les modes, et les fools invent the fashions, and the 
sages s y y conforment wise conform to them 

T 



410 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 



EXERCISE. 

1. Were the learned of antiquity to come to life again, they would 
be much astonished at the extent of our knowledge. 

2. The ignorant have, in a * strong dose of presumption, what 
they want in real science, and that is the reason they are admired by 
fools. 

(1 ) Were the, si les; to come again, revenir, ind.-2 ; life, monde ; at, de ; know- 
ledge, cunnaissance pi. 

(2.) They want, il leur manquer; that, ce; the reason, ce qui fait que-, they are 
admired, etc., say (the fools admire them). 

Rule II. — When a noun is accompanied by two 
adjectives expressing opposite qualities, the article 
ought to be repeated before every adjective. 

EXAMPLES. 

les vieux et les nouveaux soldats the old and the new soldiers are 

sont remplls d'ardeur replete with ardour 

il faut frequenter la bonne com- we ought to frequent good and 

pagnie etfuir la mauvaise shun bad company 

Observation. — This rule ought to be strictly at- 
tended to when the qualities expressed by the 
adjectives are opposite ; but those qualities may be 
either nearly synonimous, or merely different, 
without being opposite. In the first instance, the 
article is not repeated, as le sage et pieux Ftnelon ; 
in the second, it is perhaps better to repeat it, as 
le sensible et Cingenieux Fenelon. 

N.B. — In French, the substantive must be joined 
to the first adjective when governed by different 
words. 

EXERCISE. 

1. The wise man preserves the same tranquillity of mind in good 
or bad fortune. 

2. The man who is jealous of his reputation frequents good, and 
shuns bad company. 

3. Grand and strong thoughts always were the fruit of genius. 

(1.) The wise man, le sage-, preserves, conserver. 
(2.) Shuns, fruiter. 

Rule III. — The article is used before the adjec- 
tive which is joined to a proper name. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE, 411 

EXAMPLES. 

le sublime Bossuet the sublime Bossuet 

le vertueux Fenelon the virtuous Fenelon 

le tendre Racine the tender Racine 

Louis le gros Louis the fat 

Louis le juste Louis the just 

Louis le grand Louis the great 

Observation. — The adjective which is joined to a 
proper name, either precedes or follows the name. 
If it precede it, it expresses a quality which may be 
common to many; if it follow it, it expresses a dis- 
tinctive quality. These two expressions, le savant 
Varron, and Varron le savant, do not convey the 
same meaning; in the first, we merely give to 
Varron the quality of savant; in the second, we 
give to understand that there are several persons of 
the name of Varron, and that the one we mean is 
distinguished for his learning. 

EXERCISE. 

1. The great Corneille astonishes by beauties of the first order, and 
by faults of the worst taste. If the tender Racine does not often 
rise so high, at least, he bears himself well, and possesses the art ot 
always interesting the heart. 

2. The more we read the fables of the good and artless La Fon- 
taine, the more we are convinced that they are the book of all ages 
and the manual of the man of taste. 

3. It was only under the reign of Louis the just (XIII) that good 
taste began to show itself in France ; but it was under that of Louis 
the great that it was carried to perfection. 

(1.) By, par des; bears himself well, se soutenir ; possesses, avoir. 

(2.) The more, plus ; we, on ; are convinced, on se convainere; manual, manuel 

(3.) Only, ne que; show itself, se montrer ; carried, porter a. 

Mule IV. — When a superlative adjective is placed 
before the substantive, the article serves for both ; 
if after, the article is to be repeated before each. 

EXAMPLES. 

les plus habiles gens font quelquefois les plus grossieres fautes, 

or 
les gens les plus habiles font quelquefois lesfautes les plus grossieres 
the cleverest men sometimes commit the grossest blunders 



412 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 



EXERCISE. 

1. It has been said of the Telemachus of the virtuous Fenelon, 
that it is the most useful 2 present 1 the muses have made to man ; 
for, could the happiness of mankind be produced by a poem, it would 
be by that. 

2. The most still 2 water 1 often conceals the most dangerous 2 
abyss 1. 

(1.) It has been* said, on dire; present, don que; could, si pouvoir ind.-2 ; be 
produced, naitre de ; would, naitre (repeated cond.-l). 
(2.) Still, tranquille; abyss, gouffre. 

§ II. 

The pronominal adjectives mon, ton, son, notre, 
voire, leur, placed before comparative adverbs, 
perform the function of the article, and consequently 
raise the comparative to the degree of superlative 
relative, as cest mon meilleur ami, he is my best 
friend ; that is, c'est le meilleur de mes amis, he is 
the best of my friends. 

Observation. — It appears by the last expression 
that the superlative relative sometimes relates to a 
substantive not expressed, but understood ; a happy 
turn which unites elegance with precision. It is 
very elegant to say Vhiver est la plus triste des 
saisons, winter is the dullest of the seasons. 

EXERCISE. 

1. The spectacle of nature, in its infinite variety, made our 
purest delight and our sweetest occupation. 

2. Their most agreeable pastime was that of reading useful books. 

3. Your longest days w T ill always be those which you lose in idle- 
ness and luxury. 

4. Our most cruel enemies are the men that flatter us, and our 
best friends those who tell us of our faults. 

5. Athalia is the most perfect of Racine's tragedies, and TartufTe 
the finest of Moliere's comedies. 

6. Politeness and gentleness disarm the most insensible, and 
soften the most ferocious heart. 

7. It is to the tenderest and most virtuous mother that I dedicate 
this book. 

8. It is the work of the most absurd pedant that exists. 

(1.) Made, faire ind.-2. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 413 

(f .) Pastime, passe-temps ; reading, lecture. 

(3.) Lose, perdre ; idleness, oisivete ; luxury, mollesse. 

(4.) Tell us, eclair er sur ; faults, defaut. 

(6.) Politeness, honnetete', gentleness, douceur; soften, adoucir. 

(7.) Dedicate, dedier. 

§ HI- 

When an adjective serves to qualify several sub- 
stantives, these substantives are either in subject or 
in regimen. 

If in subject, the adjective is always in the plural, 
whatever be the nature of the substantives, as le 
travail, la patience, la fermete et le courage, joints 
ensemble, lejirent triompher de ses ennemis, labour, 
patience, firmness, and courage, joined together, 
made him triumph over his enemies. 

If in regimen, we must distinguish the substan- 
tives of persons and the substantives of things. 
With the first, the law of agreement is to be ob- 
served ; with the second, usage allows to make the 
adjective agree with the last only, as il avait les 
yeux et la bouche ouverte, he had his eyes and mouth 
open. — (See General Syntax of the Adjective, p.333 ) 

Observation, — With respect to the noun followed 
by several adjectives expressing sorts of the same 
kind, some grammarians will have the substantive 
to be put in the plural, while each adjective remains 
in the singular ; but such an opinion seems contrary 
to the rules of syntax ; thus this sentence, les 
langues Franqaise et Anglaise sont fort cultivees, is 
not to be preferred to the following : la langue 
Franqaise et V Anglaise sont fort cultivees. 

EXERCISE. 

1. His impetuosity and courage, long restrained, soon surmounted 
all obstacles. 

2. The imagination and genius of Ariosto, although irregular in 
their march, yet attach, carry along, and captivate the reader, who 
can never be tired of admiring them. 



414 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

3. There are in Gessner's Idyls, sentiments and a gracefulness 
altogether affecting. 

4. The good taste of the Egyptians, from that time, made them 
love solidity and naked regularity. 

5. In those climates, the dry and the rainy monsoons divide the 
year between them. 

(].) Restrained, enchainer. 

(2.) Yet, neanmoins ; carry along, entrainer ; be tired, selasser. 

(3.) Altogether, tout-a-fait; affecting, touchant. 

(4.) From that time, deslors; naked, tout nu. 

(5.) Dry, sec, monsoons, mousson f. ; divide between them, separtager. 

§IV. 

The Place of the Adjectives. 

Rule I.— Before the substantive we place the 
pronominal adjectives, adjectives of number, and in 
general the following sixteen, viz. beau, ban, brave, 
cher, chetif, grand, gros, jewie, mauvais, mechant, 
meilleur y moindre, petit, saint, vieux, and vrai. 

EXAMPLES. 

mon pere my father vieille femme old woman 

quel homme what man dix guinees ten guineas 

plusieurs qfficiers several officers six arbres six trees 

grand homme great man etc. etc. 

Exceptions. 

1st. We ought to except the pronoun quelconque? 
as raison quelconque, reason whatever. 

2nd. The adjectives of number joined to proper 
names, pronouns, and substantives in quotation and 
without the article, as George trois, George the 
Third; ltd, dixieme, he, the tenth; chapitre dix, 
chapter the tenth; page trente, page thirty. 

3rd. The sixteen adjectives before mentioned, 
when they are joined by a conjunction to another 
adjective, which is to be placed after the substan- 
tive, as c est une femme grande et bienfaite^ she is a 
woman tall and well made. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 415 

Observation. — In English, two, or even several 
adjectives may qualify a substantive, without being- 
joined by a conjunction, but in French, they must 
be united by a conjunction, as cest un homme 
aimable et poll, he is an amiable well-behaved man, 
except when usage allows the substantive to be 
placed between two adjectives, as cest un grand 
homme sec et robuste, he is a tall raw-boned robust 
man. 



1. Ages have been, when & great man was a sort of prodigy pro- 
duced by an error of nature. 

2. In almost all nations, the great geniusses that have adorned 
them were contemporaries. 

3. Young people, says Horace, are supple to the impressions of 
vice, lavish, presumptuous, and equally fiery and light in their pas- 
sions ; old people, on the contrary, are covetous, dilatory, timid, ever 
alarmed about the future, always complaining, hard to please, pane- 
gyrists of times past, censors of the present, and great givers of 
advice. 

4. What man was ever satisfied with his fortune, and dissatisfied 
with his wit ? 

o. Thirty chambers which have a communication one with another, 
and each of them an iron door, with six huge bolts, are the place 
where he shuts himself up. 

(1.) Have been, il y avoir ; when, ou ; produced, enfanter. 

(2.) In, chez ; nations, peuple; adorned, illustrer, hid. -4. 

(3.) People, gens ; supple, souple ; lavish, prodigue ', fiery, vif; covetous, avare , 
dilatory, temporiseur ; about, sur ; complaining, plaintif; hard, difficile; please, 
contenter ; givers, donneur. 

(4.) Dissatisfied, mecontent. 

(5.) Have a communication, communiquer ; each of them, dont chacun avoir ; 
huge, gros ; bolts, verrou ; shuts himself, se renfermer. 

Mule II. — In genera], we place after the substan- 
tive those adjectives which are formed of the 
participle present of verbs, as ouvrage divertissant, 
entertaining work ; and always those formed of the 
participle past, as figure arrondie, round figure ; 
those denoting the form, the shape, as table ovale, 
oval table ; the colour, maison blanche, white house ; 
the savour, the taste, herbe amere, bitter herb; the 



416 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

sound, orgue harmonieux, harmonious organ ; an 
idea of action, procureur actif, active attorney; or 
an effect produced, coutume abusive, abusive cus- 
tom ; a quality relative to the nature of a thing, 
ordre grammatical, grammatical order; or, to the 
species of a thing, qualite occulte, occult quality ; 
those of nation, generosite Anglaise, English gene- 
rosity ; those ending in esque, il, ule, ic, ique, as 
style burlesque, burlesque style ; jargon puerile 
childish jargon; fern me credule, credulous woman; 
Men public, public welfare; ris sardonique, sardonic 
laughter, and perhaps a few others: but in this, 
usage is to be consulted as our only guide. 

EXERCISE- 

1. An affected simplicity is a nice cheat. 

2. The lively images of Theocritus, Virgil, and Gessner, carry into 
the soul a soft sensibility. 

3. In that antique palace are to be seen neither wreathed columns, 
nor gilded wainscots, nor precious basso-relievos, nor ceilings curi- 
ously painted, nor grotesque figures of animals, which never had 
existence but in the imagination of a child or a madman. 

4. If human life is exposed to many troubles, it is also susceptible 
of many pleasures. 

5. A ridiculous man is seldom so by halves. 

6. Spanish manners have, at first sight, something harsh and 
savage. 

7. French urbanity was become a proverb sanoTigforeign nations. 

(1.) Nice, delicat; cheat, imposture. 

(2.) Lively, riant; carry, porter ;■ soft, doux. 

(3.) Are to be seen, on ne ni; wreathed, torse', wainscots, lambris; basso-re- 
lievos, bas-relief; ceilings, plafond; curiously, artistement; jiever, ne jamais; 
had existence, exister. 

(4.) Many, bien de; troubles, peine. 

(5.) So, le ; by halves, a demi. 

(6.) Spanish, Espagnol ; manners, mceurs. 
7.) Become, passer en; among, ckez. 

Mule III. — Although it should seem that we may 
place indifferently before or after the substantives 
those adjectives that express moral qualities, either 
good or bad, nevertheless it is taste alone, and an 
ear exercised by that nice taste, that can assign the 
proper place they are to hold. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 417 

In conversation, or in familiar loose style, it may 
be indifferent to say femme ahnable, or aimable 
femme ; talens sublimes, or sublimes talens, etc. ; but 
in dignified and elegant style, the place of the 
adjectives may, in a great variety of ways, affect 
me beauty of a sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

1. An amiable woman gives to every thing she says an inexpressible 
gracefulness ; the more we hear, the more we wish to hear her. 

2. The majestic eloquence of Bossuet is like a river, which carries 
away every thing in the rapidity of its course. 

3. The sublime compositions of Rubens have made an English 
traveller say that this famous painter was born in Flanders, through 
a mistake of nature. 

(1.) Gives to, repandr e sur ; inexpressible, inexprimable ; we,o»; her, la, must 
be repeated before each verb. 
(2.) Majestic, majestueux ; river, fleuve ; carries away, entrainer. 
(3,) Say, dire a; famous, celebre; through, par. 

§V. 

Regimen of Adjectives. 

A noun may be under the regimen of two ad- 
jectives, provided those adjectives do not require 
different regimens. Thus we say, cet homme est 
utile et cher a sa famille, that man is useful and 
dear to his family ; but we cannot say, cet homme 
est utile et cheri de sa famUle, that man is useful 
and beloved by his family, because the adjective 
utile does not govern the preposition de. 



1. A young man whose actions are all regulated by honour, and 
whose only aim is perfection in every thing, is beloved and sought 
after by every body. 

2. Cardinal Richelieu was all his lifetime feared and hated by the 
great whom he had humbled, 

3. A young lady, gentle, civil, and decent, who sees in the advan- 
tages of birth, riches, wit, and beauty, nothing but incitements to 
virtue, is very certain of being beloved and esteemed by every 
body. 

t2 



418 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

(1.) (Honour regulates all, etc.) ; (who has no other aim.) 
(2.) By, de; humbled, humilier. 

(3.) Young lady, de mo iselle; nothing but, ne que; incitements, encouragement ; 
certain, assure. 

§VI. 

Adjectives of Number. 

Unihne is used only after vingt, trente, quarante, 
cinquante, soixante, quatre-vingt, cent, and mille. 
Cest la vingt-unieme fois, it is the twenty-first 
time. 

We now say : vingt-un, or vingt et un ; trente-un, 
or trente et un, and so on to quatre-vingt; but we 
always say, trente-deux, quarante-trois, cinquante- 
qttatre, etc. The series from soixante to quatre- 
vingt took formerly the conjunction et between the 
two numbers, but it is now become obsolete, and it 
would be a fault to use that conjunction from quatre- 
vingt to cent. 

Cent, in the plural, takes the s, except when fol- 
lowed by another noun of number, as its etaient 
deux cents, they were two hundred ; but we say Us 
etaient deux-cent-dix, they were two hundred and 
ten ; trois cents hommes, three hundred men. Vingt 
in quatre-vingt and six-vingt, also takes the s when 
followed by a substantive, as quatre-vingts homines, 
eighty-men ; six-vingts abricots, six score apricots. 
Nevertheless, we say quatre-vingt-dix hommes. The 
ordinal numbers, collective and distributive, always 
take the mark of the plural : les premieres douzaines, 
the first dozens ; les quatre cinquiemes, the four 
fifths. 

In the marking of dates, we write mil, as mil sept 
cent quatre-vingt-dix-neuf one thousand seven hun- 
dred and ninety-nine. Everywhere else we write 
mille, which never takes the mark of the plural> as 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 419 

dix mille homines, ten thousand men ; qaatre mille 
chevaux, four thousand horses. 

Observation. — Cent and mille are used indefinitely, 
as il lui fit cent caresses, he made him a hundred 
(many) caresses; faites-lui mille amities, show him 
a thousand (a great many) civilities. 



1. It was the thirty-first year after so glorious a peace, when the 
war broke out again with a fury of which history offers few examples. 

2. They were only three hundred, and in spite of their inferiority 
they attacked the enemy, heat and dispersed them. 

*2, He has sold his country house for two thousand five hundred 
and fifty pounds. 

4. Choose in your nursery eighty fruit-trees and ninety dwarf- 
trees ; divide them into dozens, and put in the two first dozens of 
each sort these whose fruits are the most esteemed. 

5. When Louis the Fourteenth made his entry into Strasbourg, 
the Swiss deputies being come to see him, le Tellier, archbishop of 
Rheims, who saw among them the bishop of Basle, said to his neigh- 
bour : That bishop is apparently a wretched man. — How, replied 
the other, he has a hundred thousand French livres a year. — Oh I 
oh ! said the archbishop, he is then an honest man ; and he showed 
him a thousand civilities. 

(1.) Year, annee; when, que; broke out again, se rallumer 

(2.) Only, ne que; in spite of, malgre. 

(3.) For, * ; pounds, livre sterling 

(4.) Nurserj', pepiniere ; fruit-trees, pied d'arbre fruitier; dwarf-trees, arbre 
nain. 

(5.) Swiss (oi the Swiss) ; that bishop, etc., e'est un miserable apparemment que 
ceteveque; French, *; a year, de rente; showed, faire; civilities, caresse. 

N. B. — We say le onze, du onze, au onze, sur les 
onze heures, sur les une fieure, pronouncing the 
words onze and une as if they were written with an 
h aspirated. Neuf, nine, is pronounced neuv, as il 
a neuv ans, he is nine years old** 

We make use of the cardinal numbers instead of 
the ordinal: 

1st. In speaking of the hours and current years, 
as il est trois heures, it is three o'clock ; Van mil sept 

* Now we write in the plural number, vingt-et-un jours passes, vingt-et-un ans 
accomplis, vingt-et-un chevaux enharnaches, as we say vingi-cinqans sormes. — (Le- 
vizac, de Latouche, de Wailly, Restaut.) 



420 particular syntax 

cent-dix, the year one thousand seven hundred and 
ten. 

2nd. In speaking of all the days of the month, 
except the first, we say, le vingt de Mars, the 
twentieth of March ; but we ought to say, le premier 
de Mars, the first of March. 

3rd. In speaking of sovereigns and princes, as 
Louis Seize, George Trois ; we are to except the 
first two of the series, as Henri premier, George 
second. We also say, Charles-quint, Sixte-quint, 
instead of Charles cinq Empereur, and Sixte cinq 
Pape. 

EXERCISE. 

1. They made in the parish and in the neighbouring places a col- 
lection which produced a hundred and twenty-one guineas. 

2. William, surnamed the Conqueror, king of England and duke 
of Normandy, was one of the greatest generals of the eleventh cen- 
tury ; he was born at Falaise, and was the natural son of Robert, 
duke of Normandy, and of Arlotte, a furrier's daughter. 

3. Make haste ; it will soon be ten o'clock. We shall have a 
good deal of difficulty to arrive in time. 

4. The winter was so hard in one thousand seven hundred and 
nine, that there was but one olive tree which resisted it, in a plain 
where there had been more than ten thousand. 

5. It was the twenty-first of January, one thousand seven hundred 
and ninety- three, that the unhappy Louis the sixteenth was con- 
ducted to the scaffold. 

(1.) They, on; collection, quete. 

(2.) William, Guillaume; century, siecle; furrier, fourreur. 

(3.) Make haste, sedepecher; have a good deal of difficulty, avoir blende la peine* 

(4.) Hard, rude; but, ne que', olive tree, olivier; it, * ; been, *. 

(5.) Scaffold, echafaud. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 421 

CHAPTER IV. 

OF THE PRONOUN. 

§1- 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal pronouns have the three functions 
which we have remarked in substantives, but with 
this difference, that some are always in subject, two 
only used in apostrophe, some others always in 
regimen, and lastly, others sometimes in subject and 
sometimes in regimen. 

Those which are always in subject are je, tu, il, 
Us, asje parte, tu joues, il aime, ils s'amusent. 

Observe that Je, tu, etc. are separated from the 
verb only by personal pronouns acting as a regimen 
or by the negative ne. 

EXAMPLES. 

je ne lul en veux rien dire I will say nothing to him about it 

tu en apprendras des nouvelles thou wilt hear news of it 

il nous raconta son histoire he told us his history 

ils sont revenus a Vimproviste they are come unexpectedly 

The two which are used in apostrophe are tot and 
votes, either by themselves, or preceded by the in- 
terjection O ! as 6 toi, dont V innocence rev tie la 
beaute, toi qui dans un age encore si tendre, etc., 
O thou, whose innocence heightens the beauty, thou 
who at an age still so tender, etc. ; illustres com- 
pagnons de mes malheurs, 6 vous, etc., illustrious 
companions of my misfortunes, O ye, etc. 

EXERCISE. 

1. The better to bear the irksomeness of captivity and solitude, I 
sought for books ; for I was overwhelmed with melancholy for want 
of some instructions to cherish and support my mind. 

2. Since thou art more obdurate and unjust than thy father, mayst 
thou suffer evils more lasting and cruel than his. 



422 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

3. What ! say they, do not men die fast enough without destroying 
each other ? Life is so short, and yet it seems that it appears too 
long to them. Are they sent into the world to tear each other in 
pieces, and to make themselves mutually wretched? 

4. O thou ! my son, my dear son, ease my heart ; restore me what 
is dearer to me than my life. Restore me my lost son, and restore 
thyself to thyself. 

5. O ye, who hear me with so much attention, believe not that I 
despise men ; no, no, I am sensible how glorious it is to toil to 
make them virtuous and happy; but these toils are full of anxieties 
and dangers. 

(1.) To bear, pour supporter ; irksomeness, ennui', overwhelmed with, accable 
de : for want, faute ; cherish, qui put nourrir ; support, soutenir. 

(2.) Obdurate, dur ; (plus repeated before every adjective); mayst, pouvoir; 
lasting, long. 

(3.) Die fast enough, etre assez mortel; destroying, se donner encore une mort 
precipitec ; sent, * ; world, terre ; tear in pieces, se dechirer ; make themselves, 
se rendre. 

(4.) Ease, soulager; restore, rendre ; lost (whom 1 have lost), perdre. 

(5.) I am sensible, savoir; glorious, grand; to toil, travailler a; toil, travail. 

Those which are always in regimen are me, te, se, 
leur, le, la, les, y, and en, as je me trompe, I am 
mistaken ; il se promene, he is walking ; nous leur 
parlous, we are speaking to them ; je my rendrai, 
I shall repair thither, etc. 

Observation.- — A verb may have two regimens, 
the one direct and the other indirect, as we have 
already seen. The regimen is direct, when the word 
governed is the object of the action expressed by the 
verb. It is indirect, when the word governed is the 
end of that action. In this sentence, fenvoie ce livre 
a mon frere, ce livre is the object, and a mon frere, 
the end. The first is always without any preposition, 
either expressed or understood; but the second is 
preceded by one of these prepositions a or de, always 
expressed if it be a noun, and either expressed or 
understood if it be a pronoun; by a, if we mean the 
end aimed at by the action, and by de, if we want to 
express where that action comes from, or begins at. 
These being premised, 

Leur* is always in direct regimen, because, being 

* The objective pronoun leur either before or after a verb is unchangeable. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 423 

used instead of a eux, it includes the preposition a, 
SiSje leur parle is instead of je parle a eux or a elles. 
Me, te, se, are sometimes the object direct, as il 
maborde, that is, il aborde mot, he accosts me; and 
sometimes the indirect one, as il me tend la main, 
which is for il tend la main a moi, he presents me 
his hand. 

EXERCISE. 

1. He has been speaking to them with such force as has astonished 
them. 

2. Women ought to be very attentive, for a mere appearance is 
sometimes more prejudicial to them than a real fault. 

3. He comes up to me with a smiling air, and pressing my hand 
says : my friend, I expect you to-morrow at my house. 

4. He said to me : wilt thou torment thyself incessantly for ad- 
vantages, the enjoyment of which could not render thee more happy ? 
Cast thy eyes around thee ; see how every thing smileth at thee, 
and seemeth to invite thee to prefer a retired and tranquil life to the 
tumultuous pleasures of a vain w r orld. 

5. The ambitious man agitates, torments, and consumes himself, 
to obtain the places or the honours to which he aspires, and when 
he has obtained them, he is not yet satisfied. 

(1.) Such force as, une force qui. 

(2.) Mere,* simple ; is more prejudicial, j aire plus de tort. 

(3.) Comes up.. with, aborder ..de; pressing, eerrer ; my, la; at my house, 
chez moi. 

(4.) Advantages, des Mens; could, savoir, cond.-l ; cast, porter; smileth, 
sourire. 

(5.) Man, * ; himself, se (which is repeated before every verb) ; to, pour. 

Remark. — Le, la, les, are always direct, as 

je le vois,je la wis for je vois lui,je vois elle (I see him or her) 
je les vois „ je vois eux,je vois elles (I see them.) 

but y and en are always indirect, as 

je n'y en fends rien for je rCentends rien a cela (to it) 
ces fruits sont bons, en voulez-vous? for voulez-vous oVeux (of them)? 
avez-vous recu de V argent ? oui, j'en ai recu for un pen, une certaine 
somme or quantite d'argent 

Observation. — The following English expressions 
either in affirmative or negative interrogations, 
when answering any questions : as " Yes, I have or 
I do ;" " No, I have not or I do not;" are construed 



424 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

in French by the repetition of the verb in the 
question. 

EXAMPLES. 

avez-vous ecr it voire theme? oui,je have you written your exercise? 

Vai ecrit yes, I have 

avez-vous recu de Vargent? non,je have you received any money? 

rien ai point recu no, I have not 

EXERCISE. 

1. I have known him since his childhood, and I always loved him 
on account of the goodness of his character. 

2. This woman is always occupied in doing good works ; one sees 
her constantly consoling the unhappy, assisting the poor, reconciling 
enemies, and constituting the happiness of every one around her. 

3. The more you live with men, the more you will be convinced 
that it is necessary to know them well before you form a connection 
with them. 

4. Enjoy the pleasures of the world, I consent to it; but never 
give yourself up to them. 

5. I shall never consent to that foolish scheme ; do not mention 
it any more. 

6. Have you received some copies of the new work ? Yes, I have 
(received some). 

(1.) Have known, connaUre, ind.-l ; loved, ind.-4 ; on account, a cause. 

(2.) In, a; works, ceuvres, f. pi.; constantly, sans cesse; constituting, faire ; 
every one, tout ce ; around, qui environne. 

(3.) Live, ind.-7; be convinced, se convaincre ; "before, avant de; you, * ; form 
a connection, se Her. 

(4.) Enjoy, jouir de ; give yourself up, se livrer. 

(5.) Scheme, entreprise; mention, parler ; any, *. 

(6.) Copies, exemplaire. 

Those which are sometimes in subject, and some- 
times in regimen, are nous, vous, moi, tot, lid, elle, 
eux, elles. 

JVous and vous may be subject, object direct or 
indirect, as nous pensons (subject), aimez-nous 
(object direct), donnez-nous (indirect), etc. 

Observation. — Vous^ used instead of tie, requires 
the verb to be in the plural, but the adjective that 
follows remains in the singular, as vous serez estime, 
si vous etes sage, you will be esteemed if you be 
good. 

In general, moi, toi, lui, eux, are only in subject 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 425 

either in expletives, when we wish to give more 
force to the discourse, as moi, qui voulais partir aux 
depens de ses jours, I, who wanted to set off at the 
risk of her life ; il Va dit lui-meme, he has said so 
himself, etc. ; or in those distributive sentences 
where we want to assign the part which different 
persons have in an action, &s'mes freres et mon 
cousin in out secouru ; eux mont releve et lui ma 
pause, my brothers and cousin have assisted me ; 
they have taken me up, and he has bound up my 
wounds ; or in sentences like this, Penelope, sa 
femme, et moi qui suis son fils, Penelope, his wife, 
and I who am his son, etc. — (Fenelon.) 

Moi and toi can be the direct object, in expositive 
sentences, only after the verb etre, as cest moi qui 
le dit, it is I that say it; dest toi qui Vas fait, it is 
thou who hast done it. To be the indirect object, 
they must be preceded by a preposition, as on parte 
de moi, on rit de toi ; but they may be either object 
direct or indirect in imperative sentences, as aimez- 
moi (direct object), parlez-moi (indirect), occupe- 
toi (direct object), donne-toi la peine de (indirect). 

Lui is direct object only as an expletive, as je le 
verrai lui-meme ; its natural function is to be the 
indirect regimen, as Je lui donne, parlez-lui, instead 
of je donne a lui, parlez a lui. 

Eux, elle, elles, are also direct objects as exple- 
tives, as je la verrai elle-meme, je les verrai eux- 
mSmes; to be the indirect objects, they must be 
preceded by a preposition, as je vais a eux, I come 
to them ; cela depend d'elle, that depends upon her. 

EXSRCISE. 

1. In the education of youth, we should propose to ourselves to 
cultivate, to polish their understanding, and thus to enable them to 
fulfil with dignity the different stations assigned them ; but above 
all, we ought to instruct them in that religious worship which God 
requires of them. 



428 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

2. What ! you would suffer yourself to be overwhelmed by adver- 
sity ! 

3. I ! that I should stoop to the man who has embrued his hands 
in the blood of his king ! 

4. Thou ! thou wouldst take that undertaking upon thyself ! 
Can'st thou think of it ? 

5. Your two brothers and mine take charge of the enterprise ; 
they find the money, and he will manage the work. 

6. It is I who engaged him to undertake this journey. 

7. It is thou who hast brought this misfortune on thyself. 

8. When you are at Rome, write to me as often as you can, and 
give me an account of every thing that can interest me. 

9. He told it to thee thyself. 

10. Fortune, like a traveller, shifts from inn to inn ; if she lodge 
to-day with me, to-morrow, perhaps, she will lodge with thee. 

11. Whom dost thou think we were talking of? It was of thee. 

12. In the world, one thinks only of one's self; one is only occu- 
pied about one's self. 

13. Descartes deserves immortal praises, because it is he who has 
made reason triumph over authority, in philosophy. 

14. He is displeasing to himself. 

15. She is never satisfied with herself. 

16. The indiscreet often betray themselves. 

17. Saumaise, speaking of the English authors, said that he had 
learned more from them than from any other. 

18. To love a person, is to render him, on every occasion, all the 
services in our power, and to afford him, in society, every comfort 
that depends upon us. 

(1) Youth, jeunes gens; their (to them) the understanding, esprit; enable, 
disposer; stations, place ; assigned them (which are); worship, culte; requires, 
demander. 

(2.) Suffer yourself, se laisser, cond.-l ; to be overwhelmed, abattre. 

(3.) Stoop to, s'abaisser devant, subj.-l ; imbrued, souiller. 

(4.) Take upon thyself, se charger ; canst, * ; of it, y. 

(5.) Take charge, se charger; find, fournir ; money, fonds, pi. ; manage, conduire 

(6.) Engaged, ind. -4; undertake, faire. 

(7.) Hast brought on thyself, s'attirer, ind. -4. 

(8.) Are, ind. -7; can, ind.-7, give, faire; an account, le detail. 

(9.) Told, dire, ind.-4. 

(10.) Shifts from inn to inn, changer d'auberge; with, chez ; she will lodge, ce 
etre. 

(11.) Were talking, parler, subj.-2, 

(12.) Thinks, penser a; only, ne que; occupied about, s'occuper de. 

(13.) Triumpb over, iriompher de. 

(14.) Is displeasing, se deplaire. 

(16.) Betray, se trahir. 

(18 ) In our pov/er, dont on etre capable; afford, procurer a; comfort, agremeni', 
depends upon, dependre de. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 427 

§1- 

Cases where the Pronouns elle, elles, eux, lui, 
leur, may apply to things. 

The personal pronouns elle and elles, when in 
regimen, generally apply to persons only. We say, 
speaking of a woman, je mapprochai (Telle, je 
massis pres a" elle ; but we say, speaking of a table, 
je men approchai,je massis aupres. 

But when these pronouns are governed by the 
prepositions avec, apres, a, de, pour, en, etc, they 
may very well be applied to things. We say, 
speaking of a river, cette riviere est si rapide, quand 
elle deborde, quelle entraine avec elle tout ce quelle 
rencontre ; elle ne laisse apres elle que du sable et des 
cailloux, that river is so rapid, when it overflows, 
that it carries with it every thing it meets with in 
its course ; it leaves nothing behind but sand and 
pebbles. 

And speaking of an enemy's camp, nous mar- 
chdmes a elle, we marched up to it. We cannot 
even express ourselves any other way. 

In speaking of things, reasons, truth, etc., we 
say also, ces choses sont bonnes d'elles-memes, these 
things are good in themselves ; Jaime la verite au 
point queje sacrifirais tout pour elle, I love truth to 
that degree that I would sacrifice every thing to it ; 
ces raisons sont solides en elles-memes, those reasons 
are solid in themselves. 

But after the verb etre, they ought to be applied 
only to persons, as cest a elle, cest d* elles que je 
parte, c'est elle-meme qui vient. 

The same may be said of the pronouns eux, lui, 
and leur, which are also generally applied to persons 
only, yet custom allows sometimes to deviate from 
that rule ; however, we ought never to apply to 



428 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

things the pronouns elle, dies, eux, lui, and leur, 
but when usage does not allow us to replace them 
with the pronouns y and en. 



1. Virtue is the first of blessings ; it is from it alone we are to 
expect happiness. 

•2. The labyrinth had been built upon the lake of Meris, and they 
had given it a prospect proportioned to its grandeur. 

3. Mountains are frequented on account of the air one breathes 
on them , how many people are indebted to them for the recovery 
of their health. 

4. This book costs me dear, but I am indebted to it for my in- 
struction. 

5. Self-love is captious ; we, however, take it for our guide ; to 
it are all our actions directed, and from it we take counsel. 

6. These arguments, although very solid in themselves, yet made 
no impression upon him, so strong a chain is habit. 

7. These reasons convinced me, and from them I took my deter- 
mination. 

8. I leave you the care of that bird ; do not forget to give it 
water. 

(1.) Blessings, Men; are, devoir. 

(2.) Had been built, on bdtir, ind.-6 ; prospect, vue. 

(3.) On account, a cause; breathes, respirer; on them, y ; are indebted for, 
devoir ; recovery, retablissement. 

(5.) We (it is he that we); to it (it is to it that we direct all, etc.); direct, rap- 
porter ; from it (and it is from it that, etc.) 

(6.) No, neaucun; so strong, etc. (so much habit is a, etc); habit, habitude. 

(7.) And from (and it is), d'apres; took my determination, se decider. 

§11. 

Of the Pronoun soi. 

Soi is generally accompanied by a preposition^ 
and is used indeterminately when speaking of per- 
sons, as on doit rarement purler de soi, one ought 
to speak very seldom of one's-self. In this case, it 
is the indirect regimen, but it may be employed 
without a preposition 

1. With the verb etre, as en cher chant a tromper 
les autres, cest souvent soi qiion trompe, or on est 
souvent trompe soi-meme, in attempting to deceive 



OF THE PRONOUNS, 429 

others, we frequently deceive ourselves. In this 
case soi is the subject. 

2. After ne que, or by opposition, as 

EXAMPLES. 

rC aimer que soi c'est etre mauvais to love only one's- self, is to be a 

citoyen bad citizen 

penser ainsi, c'est s'aveugler soi- to think in this manner, is to 

mime blind one's-self , 

In these examples soi is the regimen, but when 
tie soi and en soi are used in a definite sense in 
speaking of things, they mean de sa nature and 
dans sa nature. 

EXERCISE. 

1. To excuse in one's-self the follies which one cannot excuse in 
others, is to prefer being a fool one's-self to seeing others so. 

2. We ought to despise no one ; how often have we not been in 
need of one more insignificant than ourselves? 

3. If we did not attend so much to ourselves, there would be less 
egotism in the world. 

4. Vice is odious in itself. 

5. The loadstone attracts iron to itself. 

(1.) Follies, sotiises ; others, autrui; prefer, aimer mieuz; to seeing, que de 
voir ; so, tel. 

(2.) We ought, falloir ; we, on; have been in need, avoir besoin; insignificant, 
petit. 

(3.) We, on; attend to, s'occuper de; egotism, egoisme. 

(5.) Loadstone, aimant. 

§111. 

Difficulty respecting the Pronoun le explained. 

Le, la, les, are sometimes used as pronouns, and 
sometimes as articles. The article is always fol- 
lowed by a noun, le roi 9 la reine, les hommes, 
whereas the pronoun is always joined to a verb, je 
le connais^je la respecte^je les estime. 

The pronoun le may supply the place of a sub- 
stantive, of an adjective, or even of a member of a 
sentence. 



480 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

There is no difficulty when it relates to a whole 
member of a sentence, it is always then in the mas- 
culine singular, as on doit s accommoder a Vhumeur 
des autres autant quon le petit, we ought to accom- 
modate ourselves to the humour of others as much 
as we can (do it). 

EXERCISE. 

1. The laws of nature and decency oblige us equally to defend 
the honour and interest of our parents, when we can do it without 
injustice. 

2. We ought not to condemn, after their death, those that have 
not been condemned during their life-time. 

(1.) Decency, bienseance. 

(2.) We ought, fa lloir ; condemned, le; time *. 

Neither is there any difficulty when le supplies 
the place of a substantive, it being evident that it 
then takes the gender and number of that sub- 
stantive, as madame, etes-vous la mere de cet enfant ? 
Old, je la suis, Madam, are you the mother of that 
child? Yes, I am. Mesdames, etes-vous les parentes 
dont Monsieur ma parte ? Qui, nous les sommes. 

Observation. — Though the word relating to the 
interrogative sentences, in the following exercises, 
is not expressed in English, yet it must always be 
in French ; this word is le, which takes either 
gender or number according to its relation. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Was that your idea ? Can you doubt that it was ? 

2. Are you Mrs. Such-a-one ? Yes, I am. 

3. Are those your servants ? Yes, they are. 

(1.) Idea, pensee; that it was, ce etre, subj.-2, la. 
(2.) Mrs. Madame; such-a-one, un tel. 
(3.) Those, ce la ; they, ce. 

It only remains therefore to establish the follow- 
ing rule. 

Mule. — The pronoun le takes neither gender nor 
number, when holding the place of an adjective. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 431 

EXAMPLES. 

Madame, etes-vous enrhumee ? — Oui, je le suis 

Mesdames, etes-vous contentes de ce discours ? — Oui, nous le sommes 

Fut-il jamais unefemme plus malheureuse queje le suis ! 

Observation. — This rule is observed when the 
substantives are used adjectively, as Madame, etes- 
vous mere? — Qui, je le ,suis. Mesdames, etes-vous 
parentes? — Qui, nous le sommes. Elle est fille, et 
le sera toute la vie. But not if the adjectives be 
used substantively, as Madame, etes-vous la malade ? 
Oui, je la suis. Therefore this question, etes-vous 
fille de M. le Due ? is to be answered, oui, je le suis ; 
and this, etes-vous la fille de M. le Due? — Out, je la 
suis. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Ladies, are you glad to have seen the new piece ? Yes, we are. 

2. I, a slave ! I, born to command ! alas ! it is but too true that I 
am so. 

3. She was jealous of her authority, and she ought to be so. 

4. Was there ever a girl more unhappy, and treated with more 
ridicule than I am ? 

5. You have found me amiable ; why have I ceased to appear so 
to you ? 

6. Have we ever been so quiet as we are? 

7. Madam, are you married ? Yes, I am. 
8- Madam, are you the bride ? Yes, I am. 

(2.) Slave, esclave; but, ne que. 

(3.) Ought, devoir, ind.-2. 

(4.) With more ridicule, plus ridiculement. 

N.B. — The same rule is to be observed in super- 
latives absolute, as 

la lune ne nous eclaire pas autant the moon does not give us so 

que le soleil, quand meme elle est much light as the sun, even 

la plus brillante or quand elle when it shines brightest 
brille le plus* 

§iv. 

Repetition of the Personal Pronouns. 
Rule I. — The pronouns of the first and second 

* In the above N.B. quand elle donne meme le plus de lumiere, would be bettef 
than quand meme elle est la plus brillante, which turn would offend a French ear. 



432 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

persons, when in subject, ought to be repeated 
befora all the verbs, when those verbs are in different 
tenses, and it is always better to repeat them, even 
when the verbs are in the same tense. 

EXAMPLES. 

je soutiens et je soutiendrai toujour s I maintain, and (I) will always 

maintain 

vous dites, et vous avez toujours you say, and (you) have always 

dit said 

accable de douleur,je m'ecriai et je overwhelmed with sorrow, I ex- 

dis claimed and (I) said 

nous nous promenions sur lehautdu we were walking upon the sum- 

rocher, et nous voyions sous nos mit of the rock, and (we were) 

pieds, etc. seeing under our feet, etc. 

Observation. — We ought, in all cases, to repeat 
these pronouns, though the tenses of the verbs do 
not change, when the first is followed by a regimen, 
as vous aimerez le Seigneur votre Dieu, et vous ob- 
server ez sa loi, you shall love the Lord your God, 
and (you shall) observe his law. 

This rule is not followed iri English. 



1. My dear child, I love you, and I shall never cease to love you ; 
but it is that love itself that I have for you which obliges me to 
correct you for your faults, and to punish you when you deserve it. 

2. I heard and admired these words, which comforted me a little, 
but my mind was not free enough to make him a reply. 

3. Thou wast young and thou aimedst without doubt at the glory 
of surpassing thy comrades. 

4. God has said : You shall love your enemies, bless those that 
curse you, do good to those that persecute you, and pray for those 
who slander you. What a difference between this morality and that 
of philosophers ! 

(1.) To, a. 

(2.) Heard, ecouter, ind.-2. ; words, discours ; my mind (I had not the mind, 
«tc.) ; to make a reply, repondre a. 

(3.) Aimedst at, aspirer a ; surpassing, Vemporter sur. 

(4.) Curse, maudire; slander, calomnier; between, de; and that, * h cells. 

Rule. — The pronouns of the third person, when 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 433 

in subject, are hardly ever to be repeated before 
verbs, when those verbs are in the same tense, and 
they may be repeated or not, when the verbs are in 
different tenses. 

EXAMPLES. 

la bonne grace ne gate rien ; elle a graceful manner spoils nothing ; 

ajoute a la beaute, releve la mo- it adds to beauty, heightens 

destie, et y donne du lustre modesty, and gives it lustre 

il n'a jamais rien valu et ne vaudra he never was good for any thing, 

jamais rien and never will be 

U est arrive ce matin, et il rep artir a he is arrived this morning, and 

ce soir (he) will set off again this 

evening 

Observation, — We have said hardly ever, because 
perspicuity requires the repetition of the pronoun 
when the second verb, beside the conjunction et 9 is 
preceded by a preposition, which, with its regimen, 
forms a long incidental phrase, as 

il fond sur son ennemi, et apr&s Vavoir saisi d'une main victorieuse, il le 
renverse, comme le cruel aquilon abat les tendres moissons qui dorent la 
campagne. 

EXERCISE. 

1. He took the strongest cities, conquered the most considerable 
provinces, and overturned the most powerful empires. 

2. He takes a hatchet, cuts quite off the mast which was already 
broken, throws it into the sea, jumps upon it amidst the furious 
billows, calls me by my name, and encourages me to follow him. 

3- He marshals the soldiers, marches at their head, advances in 
good order towards the enemy, attacks them, breaks them, and 
after having entirely routed them, (he) cuts them in pieces. 

(1.) Overturned, renverser. 

(2.) Hatchet, hdche f. ; cuts quite off, achever de couper ; broken, rompre ; throws, 
jeter; jumps upon it, s'elancer dessus; billows, onde. 

(3.) Marshals, ranger en bataille ; breaks, renverser ; entirely routed, achever de 
mettre en desordre ; cuts, tailler. 

Rule III. — The personal pronouns, when in sub- 
ject, of whatever person they may be, must always 
be repeated before the verbs, either when we pass 
from affirmation to negation, and vice versa, or when 
the verbs are joined by any conjunction except et 
and ni* 

u 



434 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

EXAMPLES. 

il veut et il ne veut pas he wills and he wills not 

il donne d'excellens principes, he lays down excellent principles 
parceqiCil salt que les progres because he knows that upon 
ulterieurs en dependent them depends every further 

progress 

but we say, il donne et refoit, he gives and receives ; 
il ne donne ni ne recoit, he neither gives nor 
receives. 

EXERCISE. 

1. It is inconceivable how whimsical she is : from one moment to 
the other she wills and she wills not. 

2. The Jews are forbidden to work on the Sabbath ; they are as 
if chained down in their sleep ; they light no fire and carry no 
water. 

3. Since eight days nearly she neither eats nor drinks. 

4. The soldier was not repressed by authority, but, stopped through 
satiety and shame. 

(1.) (She is of a whimsical cast inconceivable); whimsical cast, bizarrerie f. 
(2.) (It is forbidden to) forbidden, defendre ; sabbath, jour du sabbat; light, 
allumer; if* ; chained down, enchaine; sleep, repos. 
(3.) Nearly, pres de. 
(4.) Repressed, reprimer ; stopped, s'arreter ; through, par. 3 

Rule IV. — Pronouns, when in regimen, are re- 
peated before all the verbs. 

EXAMPLES. 

Videe de ses malheurs lepoursuit, le the idea of his misfortunes pur- 
tourmente, et Vaccable sues (him), torments (him), 

and overwhelms him 

il nous ennuie et nous obsede sans he wearies (us) and torments us 
cesse incessantly 

Observation.— The pronoun in regimen is not 
repeated before such compound verbs as express the 
repetition of the same action, as je vous le dis et 
redis, il le fait et refait sans cesse ; this, however, 
is the case only when the verbs are in the same 
tense. 

EXERCISE. 

1. It is taste that selects the expressions, that combines, arranges, 
and varies them, so as to produce the greatest effect. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 435 

2. Horace answered bis stupid critics not so much to instruct 
them as to show their ignorance, and let them see that they did not 
even know what poetry was. 

3. Man embellishes nature herself; he cultivates, extends, and 
polishes it. 

(1.) (Repeat qui before every verb); so as to, de maniere, a ce que; (they 
produce). 

(2.) Stupid, sot; not so much, moins; (to show (to them) their, etc.); let see. 
faire entendre ; was, c'elait que. 

§V. 

Relation of the Pronouns of the third Person to a 
Noun expressed before. 

Rule. — The pronouns of the third person, il, Us, 
elle, elles 9 le, la, les, must always relate to a noun, 
in subject or regimen, taken in a definite sense; 
but they must not be made to relate, either to a 
subject and regimen at the same time, or to a noun 
taken in an indefinite sense, or to a noun that has 
not before been expressed in the same sense. 

EXAMPLES. 

la rose est la reine desjteurs, aussi the rose is the queen of flowers, 
elle est Vembleme de la beaute therefore it is the emblem of 

beauty 
faime l'ananas ; il est exquis I like the pine-apple ; it is ex- 

quisite 

But we cannot say, Racine a imite Euripide en 
tout ce qu'\\ a de plus beau dans sa PhMre, Racine 
has imitated Euripides in all that he has (is) most 
beautiful in his Phedra ; because, as the pronoun 
il may relate either to Racine or to Euripides, the 
sentence is equivocal. Neither can we say, le legal 
publia une sentence d'interdit ; il dura trois mois, 
the legate published a sentence of interdiction; it 
lasted three months ; because il cannot, from the 
construction of the sentence, relate to inter dit. 
Again, it is not altogether correct to say, nulle paix 



436 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

pour Vimpie ; il la cherche, elle fuit, no peace for 
the wicked; he seeks it, it flies; because, from the 
construction, the pronouns la and elle seem to be 
used for nnlle paix, whereas, according to the 
meaning, they supply the place of the substantive 
paix, which is the opposite state. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Poetry embraces all sorts of subjects ; it takes in every thing 
that is most brilliant in history ; it enters the fields of philosophy : 
it soars to the skies ; it plunges into the abyss ; it penetrates even 
to the dead ; it makes the universe its domain, and if this world be 
not sufficient, it creates new ones which it embellishes with enchant- 
ing abodes, which it peoples with a thousand various inhabitants. 

2. Egypt aimed at grandeur, and wanted to strike the eyes at a 
distance, but always pleasing them by the justness of proportions. 

3. Egjrpt, satisfied with its own country, where every thing was 
in abundance, thought not of conquests ; it extended itself in another 
manner, by sending colonies to every part of the globe, and with 
them, politeness and laws. 

4. The Messiah is expected by the Hebrews ; he comes and calls 
the Gentiles, as had been announced by the prophecies ; the people 
that acknowledges him as come, is incorporated with the people that 
expected him, without a single moment of interruption between the 
two. 

(1.) Subjects, matiere ; takes in, se charger de ; that is, y avoir de ; the fields (in) ; 
soars, s'elancer dans ; plunges, s'enfoncer ; to. ckez ; (its domain of the universe) ; 
be sufficient, suffire ; ones * monde repeated ; enchanting, enchante ; abodes, 
demeure ; various, divers. 

(2.) Grandeur, grand ; wanted, vouloir; to, *; pleasing (in), contenter. 

(3.) Was in abundance, abonder; thought, songer ; by (in); part of the globe, 
terre. 

(4.) Gentiles, Gentil; (the prophecies had announced it) ; acknowledges, recon- 
naitre\ with, a; without, sans que y avoir, subj.-l ; single, seul. 

II 

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

How to express hi French son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, 
relating to Inanimate things. 

The possessive pronouns son, sa, ses, tear, leurs, 
may relate either to persons or to things personified, 
or simply to things. If they relate to persons or 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 437 

personified things, there is no difficulty, son, sa, ses, 
etc. must be used and never supplied by any other 
words; but if they relate only to inanimate things, 
the following rule must be attended to. 

General Hide. — The possessive adjectives or pro- 
nouns son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, when relating to 
inanimate things, are used in a sentence, only when 
the name or pronoun of the thing referred to is 
expressed in the same proposition where is placed 
the possessive pronoun; for instance, we say, V An- 
gleterre etend son commerce par toute la terre, 
England extends her trade over the whole globe. 

In the above example, the possessive pronoun 
son relates to an inanimate thing (Angleterre) ex- 
pressed in the same proposition ; but for the same 
reason, we cannot say la ville de Londres est belle 9 
f admire ses rues magnifiques, the town of London 
is beautiful, I admire its magnificent streets ; be- 
cause in this last sentence, the phrase including two 
propositions, it is only in the first that the name of 
the thing {Londres) has been expressed, but not in 
the second, where the pronoun ses is to be found ; 
therefore we ought to say, la ville de Londres est 
belle, fen admire les rues magnifiques, the town of 
London is beautiful, I admire the magnificent streets 
(of it) ; however, if the possessive pronouns are im- 
mediately preceded by a preposition, in that case 
our last observation does not stand good, and son, 
sa, ses, etc., are to be used, as la ville de Londres 
est belle, f admire la magnificence de ses rues; in this 
example ses is preceded by the preposition de. 
Observations. 

1. On all other occasions, when son, sa, ses, leur, 
leurs apply to inanimate things, the particle en 
placed immediately before the verb must be sub 
stituted. 



438 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

2. The definite article le, la, les, and the particle 
e?i 9 are substituted to son, sa, ses, etc., whenever the 
sense of the proposition may bear the change without 
any impropriety, therefore, instead of saying in 
speaking of a house, son exterieur est agreable, its 
outside is agreeable; in speaking of a town, Jaime 
ses environs, I like its vicinity ; and in speaking of 
trees, leurs fruits so?it excellents, their fruits are 
excellent; we may say very well without any injury 
to the sense, V exterieur en est agr table ; fen admire 
les environs; les fruits en sont excellents. But in 
the two following sentences, the alteration of en to 
son, sa, ses, etc., could not take place without incon- 
venience to the sense, as in speaking of London, we 
should say ses bdtimens reguliers plaisent au premier 
coup-d'ceil, its regular buildings please at the first 
sight, but not les bdtimens reguliers en plaisent ; son 
commerce produit oVimmenses ressources, its trade 
produces immense resources, but not le commerce 
en produit tf immense, etc. 

. EXERCISE. 

1. A new custom was a phenomenon in Egypt, for which reason 
there never was a people that preserved so long its customs, its laws, 
and even its ceremonies. 

2. Solomon abandons himself to the love of women ; his under- 
standing declines, his heart weakens, and his piety degenerates into 
idolatry. 

3. That superb temple was upon the summit of a hill ; its columns 
were of Parian marble, and its gates of gold. 

4. The Laocoon is one ot the finest statues in France ; not only 
the whole, but all its features, even the least, are admirable. 

5. The Thames is a magnificent river; its channel is so wide and 
so deep below London Bridge, that several thousands of vessels lie 
at their ease in it. 

6. This fine country is justly admired by foreigners ; its climate is 
delightful, its soil fruitful, its laws wise, and its government just and 
moderate. 

. The trees of that orchard are well exposed, yet its fruits are 
bad enough. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 439 

8. The Seine has its source in Burgundy, and its mouth at Havre- 
de- Grace. 

9. The pyramids of Egypt astonish, both by the enormity of their 
mass and the justness of their proportions. 

10. Egypt alone could erect monuments for posterity ; its obelisks 
are still to this day, as much for their beauty as for their height, thfc 
principal ornament of Rome. 

11. History and geography are a mutual light to each other; a 
perfect knowledge of them ought to enter into the plan of a good 
education. 

(1.) Phenomenon, prodige ; for which reason, aussi; preserved, subj.-3. 
(2.) Declines, baisser; weakens, s'affaiblir. 
(3.) Summit, haut; hill, colline ; Parian, de Paros. 
(4.) The whole, V ensemble ; even, jusqu'a. 
(5.) Channel, lit; below, au dessous de; lie at, etre a. 
(6.) Justly, avec raison ; soil, sol. 
(7.) Orchard, verger; yet, cependant. 
(8.) Mouth, embouchure; Havre, le Havre, 
(9.) Both, egalement: (et elegantly repeated). 

(10.) Could, il appartenir a ind.-2; alone, ne que; erect, dresser; to this dfe~ 
aujourd'hui ; as much for, autantpar ; height, hauteur. 

(11.) Are a mutual light, s' eclair er Vun par V autre ; a, * ; of them (their.) 

When there exists any doubt whether the pos- 
sessive pronoun ought to be used or not, the fol- 
lowing is the rule : 

The article, instead of the possessive pronoun, 
must be put before a noun forming the regimen, 
when a pronoun which is either subject or regimen, 
sufficiently supplies the place of that possessive 
without ambiguity, 

EXAMPLES. 

fai mal a la tete my head aches 

je me suis coupe le doigt I have cut my finger 

ilfaudra hi amputer lajambe it will be necessary to cut off his 

leg 
vous leur marchez sur les pieds you tread upon their feet 



1 . For the whole winter, he has had sore eyes. 

2. I had a fall yesterday, and I hurt the loins and head. 

3. Furious, he gets off from the midst of us, and runs with the 
utmost swiftness, like a horse that is become unruly. 

4. In this sanguinary battle, he received a wound by a shot in his 
right arm, and another in his left leg ; by dint of care his arm was 
saved, but it was necessary to cut off his leg. 

(1.) For, pendant; has had sore, avoir mal a. 



440 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

2.) Had a fall, se laisser totnber; hurt, se faire mul a. 

(3.) With the utmost swiftness, a perte d'haleine; like, tel que', is become un- 
ruly, prendre le mors aux dents. 

(4 ) A wound by a shot, un coup de feu ; arm, bras ; leg, jambe; by dint, & force; 
his arm, etc. (they saved the arm to him); was necessary, falloir. 

But should either the personal pronoun, or cir- 
cumstances, not remove all equivocation, then the 
possessive pronoun ought to be joined to the noun. 
We ought to say, je vols que ma jambe s'enfle, I see 
that my leg is swelling, because I may see the leg 
of another person swelling. For the same reason, 
we ought to say, il ltd donna sa main a baiser, he 
ga^e him his hand to kiss; elle a donne hardiment 
son bras an chirurgieyi^ she boldly gave her arm to 
the surgeon. 

EXERCISE. 

1. In this interview, they made each other presents ; she gave him 
her portrait, and he gave her his finest diamond. 

2. A young surgeon was disposed to bleed the great Conde' ; this 
prince said to him smiling: Tremble you not to bleed me? I, my 
Lord, no, certainly; it is not I, it is you who ought to tremble. 
The prince, charmed with the reply, immediately gave him his arm. 

(1.) Interview, entrevue; made each other, se faire mutuellement, 
(2.) Was disposed, se disposer ; bleed, saigner; smiling, d'un air riant; it is not 
I, (it is not to me) ; it is you, (it is to you) ; who ought, * de ; reply, repartie. 

Observations. 

1. Although verbs which are conjugated with two 
pronouns of the same person remove every kind of 
amphibology, at least in general, yet custom autho- 
rises some proverbial expressions in which the pos- 
sessive pronoun seems to be useless, as il se tient 
ferme sur ses pieds, he stands firm upon his feet 

(legs), always find himself on his legs. 

2. Custom likewise authorises certain pleonasms, 
which seem to make exceptions to this rule, as je 
Vai vu de mes propres yeux, I have seen it with my 
own eyes. 

3. When we speak of an habitual complaint, we 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 441 

ought to use the possessive pronoun, as sa migraine 
Va repris, his headache is come upon him again. 

4. We never make use of the possessive pronouns 
before a noun which is to be followed by qui or que, 
and a pronoun of the same person as those pos- 
sessives. Thus, we ought to say.j'ai recti la lettre 
que vous raavez tcrite, I have received the letter 
which you wrote to me. It would be wrong to say 
votre lettre que vous, etc. Foreigners are apt to 
offend against this rule. 

The possessive pronouns perform the office of the 
article and are regulated by the same laws ; they 
ought, therefore, to be repeated before all the sub- 
stantives in subject or regimen, and before the 
adjectives which express different qualities, as son 
pere, sa mere, et ses freres sont de retour, his father, 
mother, and brothers are come back ; je lui at 
montre mes plus beaux et mes plus vilains habits, I 
have shown him my finest and my ugliest dresses. 
This rule which is not always observed in English, 
is common in French to all adjective pronouns. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Whatever he may do, he always tinds himself on his legs. 

2. Can you yet doubt the truth of what I tell you ? Would you 
ask a stronger proof than that I give you ; it is that I heard it, yes, 
heard it with my own ears. 

3. My gout does not allow me a moment's repose. 

4. It is in vain that I exhort you to work and to study ; yaw idle- 
ness, that cruel disease which disorders you, renders useless all the 
exhortations of interest and friendship. 

5. If you wish to be beloved, fail not to perform the promises you 
have just made. 

6. In the retreat that I have chosen for myself, my study and — 
garden are my greatest delight. 

7. He brought me into his laboratory, and showed me his large 
and — small vessels. 

(1.) Finds himself, se trouver. 

(2.) Can, cond.-l ; doubt, douter de; ask, exiger; heard, entendre, 

(3.) Allow, laisser, 

(4.) It is in vain, je avoir beau ; that I, * ; disorders, travailler. 

v2 



442 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

(5.) Fail not, napas manquer. 

(G.) For myself (to me); study, cabinet. 

(7 ) Brought, mener ; laboratory, laboratoire ; vessels, vaisseau. 

III. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Qui, in subject,, may very properly relate to 
persons and to things, as Vhomme qui joue perd son 
temps, the man who gambles loses his time ; le livre 
qui plait le plus nest pas toujour s le plus utile, the 
book which pleases most is not always the most 
useful. But, when it is in regimen, it can only be 
said of persons or of things personified, whether the 
regimen be direct or indirect, as quand on est delicat 
et sage dans ses gouts, onne s attache pas sans savoir 
qui Von aime, he who is wise and discriminate in his 
feelings, does not form an attachment without 
knowing whom he loves; 1'homme a qui appartiera 
ce beaujardin, est tres-riche, the man to whom this 
fine garden belongs is very rich ; la femme de qui 
vous parlez, the woman of whom you are speaking. 

Observation, — When the regimen indirect is ex- 
pressed by the preposition de, we ought to prefer 
dont to de qui. It is better to say, la femme dont 
vous parlez, but it is only when the relative is to be 
followed by a personal pronoun. 

Rule I. — Qui must not be separated from its ante- 
cedent, when that antecedent is a noun. 

EXAMPLE. 

un jeunehomme qui est docile aux a young man who is docile to the 

conseils qu'on lui donne, et qui counsels which are given him, 

dime den recevoir, aura infailli- and who loves to receive them, 

blement du merite will infallibly have merit 

Observation, — In some phrases, qui may be sepa- 
rated from the substantive by a certain number of 
words ; it is when the sense forces it to be referred 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 443 

to that substantive, as il afallu, avant toute chose, 
vous faire lire dans Vecriture saint e Phistoire du 
peuple de Dieu, qui fait le fondement de la religion. 
This sentence is very correct, because, as du peuple 
determines the kind of history, and de Dieu the 
kind of people, the mind necessarily goes back to 
the substantive histoire, to which it refers the inci- 
dental phrase. 

Qui, however, may be separated from its ante- 
cedent, when this antecedent is a pronoun in regimen 
direct, as il la trouva qui pleurait a chaudes larmes, 
he found her crying bitterly ; je le vois qui joue, I 
see him playing ; because, in this case, the place 
of the pronoun is before the verb, and it is the same 
as saying, il trouva elle qui pleurait, etc. ; je vois 
lui qui joue. Also in these kind of sentences, which 
are real gallicisms, ceux-la ne sont pas les plus mal- 
heureux qui se plaignent le plus, those are not the 
most unhappy who complain the most. 



1. A young man who loves vanity of dress, like a woman, is un- 
worthy of wisdom and glory ; glory is only due to a heart that knows 
how to suffer pain and trample upon pleasure. 

2. Thyself, O my son, my dear son, thou thyself that now enjoyest 
a youth so lively and so fruitful in pleasures, remember that this 
fine age is but a flower which will be dried up as soon as open. 

3. Men pass away like flowers, which open in the morning, and at 
night are withered and trampled under foot. 

4. You must have a man that loves nothing but truth and you, that 
will speak the truth in spite of you, that will force all your entrench- 
ments ; and that necessary man is the very same whom you have 
sent into exile. 

5. We perceived him waiting for us, quietly seated under the shade 
of a tree. 

(1.) Vanity of dress, se parer vainement ; how to, *; trample upon, fouler aux 
pieds. 

(2.) Remember, se souvenir ; dried up, seeker ; open, eclore. 

(3.) Open, s'epanouir; and (which); withered, fietrir. 

(4.) You must have, ilfalloir; nothing but, ne que; will (change the future into 
the present of the subjunctive) ; entrenchments, retrancliement ; sent into exile, 
exiler. 

(5.) Waiting for (who waited), attendre; under, a. 



444 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

Rule II. — The relative qui must always relate to 
a noun taken in a determinate sense. 

EXAMPLES. 

Ihomme est un animal raisonnable, qui, etc. 
il me regut avec une politesse, qui, etc. 

But we cannot say Vhommeest animal raisonnable, 
qui, etc. ; il me regut avec politesse, qui, etc. 

Observation. — Though in many phrases, the de- 
termination of the nouns is not expressed, yet it is 
clearly understood. Thus, all these phrases are 
correct : il ria point de livre qui ne soit de son choix, 
he has not a book that is not of his own selecting ; 
y a-t-il ville dans le royaume qui soit plus favor isee? 
is there a city in the kingdom that is more favoured? 
il ny a pas homme qui soit assure d'une heure de 
vie, there is no man (not a man) that is sure of an 
hour's life ; il se conduit en homme qui connait le 
monde, he behaves himself like a man who knows 
the world; il est accable tfemauxqui ne lui laissent 
pas un instant de repos, he is overwhelmed with 
evils that do not allow him a moment's rest ; cest 
une sorte de fruit qui ne murit pas en Europe, it 
is a sort of fruit (a fruit) that does not ripen in 
Europe. From the translation of all the above 
examples, it is evident that livre, ville, Iwmme, 
maux, are really determined, the meaning being, 
il napas un livre qui, etc., y a-t-il une ville qui, 
etc., and as to the word sorte, we have seen that it 
also determines the word fruit. 

EXERCISE. 

1. He received us with such goodness, civility, and grace, as 
charmed us, and made us forget all we had suffered. 

2. There is no city in the world where there are more riches and 
a greater population. 

3. Is there a man can say : I shall live to-morrow? 

i. He has no friend but would make for him every kind of 
sacrifice. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 445 

5. Ke is surrounded by enemies who are continually observing him, 
and would very much wish to find him in fault. 

6. In his retreat he lives as a sage, who knows mankind and mis- 
trusts them. 

7. The pine-apple is a sort of fruit that in Europe ripens only in 
ho:- houses. 

8. That man is a sort of pedant, who takes words for ideas, and 
facts confusedly heaped up for knowledge. 

(1.) Such, .as, un. .qui. 

(2.) There are, subj. 

{'o ) Man (who) ; can, subj. 

(4.) Would make, si.bj.-2. 

(5.] To, * 

(6.) As a> en; mistrusts, se defter de. 

(7.) Hot-houses, serre chaude. 

"8.) Heaped up, entasser. 

Que relates to persons and things in all cases, 
It is always regimen direct in a preposition, and 
cannot be without an antecedent expressed, which 
it generally follows, as rhomme que je vols, la 
peche quejg mange. We say generally, because in 
some instances it may be separated from the ante- 
cedent by a certain number of words ; it is when the 
mind necessarily goes back to that antecedent, as 
in this sentence of Flechier's : Quest-ce quune 
armee ? Cest un corps anime dune infinite de passions 
differ elites, qu'zm homme habile fait mouvoir pour la 
defense de la patrie. 

Observation. — There are instances where que 
appears to be regimen indirect, as it seems to be 
used instead of a qui or dont, as dest a vous que je 
parle; cest de lid que je parley de la f aeon que/ai 
dit la chose. But in this case que is a conjunction. 

EXERCISE. 

1. The God whom the Hebrews and Christians have always 
served, has nothing in common with the deities full of imperfection 
and even of vice, worshipped by the rest of the world 

2. Epopaea is not the panegyric of a hero which is proposed as a 
pattern, but the recital of a great and illustrious action, which is 
exhibited for imitation. 

3. The good ivhicn we hope for shows itself to us, and flies away 
like an empty dream, which a man's awakening causes to vanish, to 



446 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

teach us that the very things which we think we (hold fast in our 
hands), may slip away in an instant. 

4. Plato says, that in writing, we ought to hide ourselves, to dis- 
appear, to make the world forget us, that we may produce nothing 
but the truths we wish to impress, and the passions we wish to 
purify. 

(1.) (That the rest of the -world worshipped). 

(2.) Is proposed, on propose', pattern, module, exhibited, donner; imitation, 
example. 

(3.) Flies away, s'envoler; a man's awaking, reveil; causes, faire; we hold 
fast, * tenir le mieux; in our hands, * ; slip away, echapper a I'. 

(4.) To make the world forget, se faire oublier; that we may produce, pour ne 
produire que; we, on; wish, vouloir; impress, persuader. 

Lequel and dont relate both to persons and things. 
It is a general rule that we ought never to use 
lequel, either as a subject or object, but when it is 
to avoid amphibology ; for, whenever the sense is 
sufficient to remove it, we must make use of qui or 
que ; this is conformable to the present practice. 

Lequel, with the preposition de, is either followed 
or preceded by a noun, which it unites to the prin- 
cipal sentence. If it be followed by the noun, we 
ought to prefer dont to duquel, both for persons and 
things ; thus we say, la Tamise dont le lit, and not 
de laquelle ; le prince dont la protection, and not 
duquel ; but in speaking of persons, de qui is still 
better than dont, and in this last example, we should 
prefer le prince de qui la protection. If lequel be 
preceded by the noun, we can only make use of 
duquel when speaking of things, as la Tamise, dans 
le lit de laquelle, and it is always better to use it 
when speaking of persons, as le prince a la pro- 
tection duquel ; de qui would not be so well. 

With the preposition a, we can only make use of 
auquel when speaking of things, as les places aux- 
quelles il aspire ; but we ought to prefer a qui when 
speaking of persons, as les rois a qui on doit oheir ; 
auxquels would not do so well. 

It is easy to see that the relative qui, preceded by 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 447 

a preposition, never relates to things, but to persons 
only. 

EXERCISE. 

1. The grand principle on which the whole turns is, that all the 
world is but one republic, of which God is the common father, and 
every nation, as it were, one great family. 

2. Homer, whose genius is grand and sublime like nature, is the 
greatest poet, and perhaps the most profound moralist of antiquity. 

3. The celebrated Zenobia, whose noble firmness you have ad- 
mired, preferred to die with the title of queen rather than to accept 
the advantageous offers which Aurelian made her. 

4. The Alps, on the summit of which the astonished eye discovers 
perpetual snow and ice, present at sun-set, the most imposing and 
most magnificent spectacle. 

5. A king, to whose solicitude we owe a good lav/, has laboured 
more towards his own glory than if he had conquered the universe. 

6. The ambitious man sees nothing but pleasure in the possession 
of the places to which he aspires with so much ardour, instead of 
seeing the troubles that are inseparable from them. 

7. Kings, whom religion imposes upon us as a duty to obey, are, 
upon earth, the true image of the providence of God. 

(1.) Turns, rouler ; all, *; as it were, comme. 

(3.) Preferred rather, aimer mieux. 

(4.) Sun-set, soleil couchant. 

(5.) Towards, pour. 

(6.) Instead of, au lieu de. 

(7.) Whom (to); imposes upon as a duty, faire un devoir. 

Quoi can never relate but to things. It follows 
the word to which it relates, and is always preceded 
by a preposition, as la chose a quoi on pense; voila 
les conditions sans quoi la chose ne peut se faire \ 
this turn is still to be met with in some writers, 
but duquel and auquel are much better, for quoi has 
a vague signification, for which reason it is never 
used with any degree of propriety but when it relates 
to a vague and indefinite subject, such as ce or rien, 
as c'est de quoi je moccupe sans cesse ; il ny a rien 
a quoiy^ sois plus dispose. 

Ou, d'oii, par oil, never relate but to things. We 
never use them but when the nouns to which they 
relate express some kind of motion or of rest, at 



448 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

least metaphorically, as voila le but ou il tend, that 
is the end he aims at ; cest une chose d'ou depend le 
b on heur public, it is a thing upon which the public 
happiness depends ; les lieux par ou il a passe, the 
places through which he has passed. 

EXERCISE. 

1. What a young man, who begins the world, ought principally to 
attend to, is not to give it a high opinion of his understanding, but to 
get himself many friends by the qualities of his heart. 

2. A youth lost in uselessness, softness, and voluptuousness, pre- 
pares for us nothing but sorrows and disgusts in old age ; this, 
nevertheless, is what we little think of when we are young. 

3. There is nothing by which we show ourselves more affected than 
the loss of fortune, although being frail and perishable by its nature, 
it cannot contribute to our happiness. 

4. A grove in which I brave the ardour of the dog-star, a retired 
valley where I can meditate in peace, a high hill, whence my eye 
extends over immense plains, are the places where I spend the hap- 
piest moments of my life. 

(1 ) To what, ce a, begins, entrer dans; to attend, s'attacher: it, y. opinion, 
idee; understanding, esprit; to get himself, sefaire. 
(2.) Softness, mollesse ; of which (to). 

(3.) By, a; we, on; affected, sensible; frail, frele; cannot, subj. 
(4.) Dog-star, canicule; spend, passe. 

IV. 

ABSOLUTE PRONOUNS. 

Qui relates to persons only ; it presents to the 
mind nothing but a vague undetermined idea, as 
qui sera assez hardi pour Vattaquer ? Who will be 
bold enough to attack him ? It is used in the femi- 
nine and in the plural, as qui est cette personne ? 
Who is that person ? Qui sont ces femmes ? Who 
are those women ? 

Que and quoi relate to things only, as que pouvait 
la valeur en ce combat funeste ? What could valour 
do in that fatal combat? A quoi pensez-vous? What 
are you thinking of? Que is sometimes used for a 
quoi> de quoi, as que sert la science sans la vertu f 
What avails learning without virtue? Que sert a 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 449 

Vavare cV avoir des tresors? What use is it to the 
miser to possess treasures? that is, a quoi sert, etc., 
de quoi sert, etc. 

Quoi sometimes relates to a whole sentence, and 
in this case, it is the only expression authorised by 
usage, as la vie passe commeun songe ; cest cependant 
a quoi on ne pense guere. 

Observation. — Que and quoi govern the prepo- 
sition de before the adjective that follows them, as 
que dit-on de nouveau ? Quoi de plus agreable ? 
Que governs it likewise before the substantives. 

Quel relates both to persons and things, as quel 
homrne peut se promettre un bonheur constant ? 
Quelle grace ! quelle beaute ! mais quelle modestie I 

Oil, d % ou, par oil, never relate but to things. 



1. Who could ever persuade himself, did not daily experience 
convince us of it, that out of a hundred persons there are ninety who 
sacrifice to the enjoyment of the present all the best founded hopes 
of the time to come ? 

2. Who would not love virtue for its own sake, could we but see 
it in all its beauty ? 

3. WAatf is an army ? A body animated with an infinite number 
of different passions, which a skilful man puts into motion for the 
defence of the country. 

4. He who did not know how to apply himself in his youth, does 
not know what to do in mature age. 

5. He was a wise legislator who, having given to his nation laws 
calculated to make them good and happy, made them swear not to 
violate any of those laws during his absence ; after which, he went 
away, exiled himself from his country, aud died poor in a foreign 
land. 

6. What people of antiquity ever had better laws than the 
Egyptians? What other nation ever undertook to erect monuments 
calculated to triumph over both time and barbarism? 

7. What more instructing and entertaining than to read celebrated 
authors in their own language ! Whatbeauty, what delicacy, and grace, 
which cannot be conveyed into a translation, are not discovered in 
them ! 

8. When Menage had published his book of the origin of the 
French language, Christina, queen of Sweden, said, " Menage is the 
most troublesome man in the world ; he cannot let one word go 



450 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

without its passport; he must know whence it comes, where it has 
passed through, and whither it is going. 

(1.) Out of, sur; time to come, avenir. 

(2.) Its own sake, elle-meme; could we, on pouvoir, ind.-2. 

(3.) With, de; infinite number, infinite; puts into motion, /aire mouvoir ; 
country, patrie. 

(4.) How, *; what (to); to do, s'occuper; mature, mur. 

(5.) Nation, concitoyen; calculated, prop re; not to violate (that they would not) ; 
went away, partir. 

6.) Calculated to, fait pour; both, egalement. 

(7.) Delicacy, finesse; which cannot, que on; be conveyed, faire passer; are 
not (active voice) on. 

(8.) When, apresque; troublesome, incommode ; cannot, ne saurait ; go, passer; 
must, vouloir ; is going, alter. 

V. 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

We have seen that ce, joined to a noun, takes its 
gender and number, and that as it does the office of 
article, it ought to follow the same laws of repetition. 
It is also joined to the verb etre, and to a relative 
pronoun. 

Ce, joined to the verb etre, always governs this 
verb in the singular except when it is followed by 
the third person plural. We say, cestmoi, cest toi, 
cest lui, cest nous, cest vous, but we ought to say, 
ce sont eux, ce so?it elles, cefurent vos ancetres, qui, 
etc. 

Ce is often used for a person or thing before- 
mentioned, and in this case it is for il or elle. We 
must always make use of ce when the verb etre is 
followed by a substantive, taken in a determinate 
sense, that is, accompanied by the article or the 
adjective un, as lisez Homlre et Virgile, ce sont les 
plus grands poetes de Vantiquite, read Homer and 
Virgil, they are the best poets of antiquity. La 
douceur, Vqffabilite, et une ceriaine urbanite dis- 
tinguent Vhomme qui vit dans le grand monde ; ce 
sont la les marques auxquelles on le reco?inait, gen- 
tleness, affability, and a certain urbanity, distinguish 
the man that lives in the great world ; those are the 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 451 

marks by which he may be known. Avez-vous lu 
Platon ? dest un des plus beaux genies de Vantiquite, 
have you read Plato ? He is one of the greatest 
geniuses of antiquity. But when the verb etre is 
followed by an adjective, or by a substantive taken 
adjectively, we ought to make use of il, elle, as lisez 
Demosthene et Ciceron ; ils sont tres-eloquens. J'ai 
vu Thopital de Greenwich ; il est inagiiiflque et 
digne d'une grande nation, Compteriez-vous sur 
Valerel Ig?iorez-vous qu'il est homme a ne jamais 
revenir de ses premieres idees? Would you rely upon 
Valere ? Do you not know that he is that kind 
of man that will never give up his first ideas ? As 
no such distinction is made in English, the learner 
ought particularly to attend to this rule. 

EXERCISE. 

1. It is we, who have drawn that misfortune upon us, through our 
thoughtlessness and imprudence. 

2. It was the Egyptians that first observed the course of the stars, 
regulated the year, and invented arithmetic. 

3. Peruse attentively Plato and Cicero ; they are the two philo- 
sophers of antiquity who have given us the most sound and luminous 
ideas upon morality. 

4. If you be intended for the pulpit, read over and over again 
Bourdaloue and Massillon ; they are both very eloquent, but the aim 
of the former is to convince, and that of the latter to persuade. 



(1.) Upon, *; thoughtlessness, i 
(3.) Sound, sain; morality, morale. 
(4.) Are intended for, se destiner a ; pulpit, chaire; read over and over again, 
lire ei retire sans cesse ; aim, but. 

Ce, joined to a relative pronoun, relates to things 
only. It is always masculine singular, because it 
only denotes a vague object, which is not sufficiently 
specified to know its gender and number, as ce qui 
flatte est plus dangereux que ce qui offense, what 
flatters is more dangerous than what offends. 

Observation. — Ce, joined to the relative pronouns, 
qui, que, dont, and qitoi, has, in some instances, a 
construction which is peculiar to itself. Ce and the 



452 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

relative pronoun that follows it, form with the verb 
which they precede, the subject of another phrase, 
of which the verb is always etre. Now etre may be 
followed by another verb, an adjective, or a noun. 

When it is followed by another verb, the demon- 
strative ce is to be repeated, as cecpiej'aime le plus, 
c'est d'etre senl, what I like most is to be alone. 

When it is followed by an adjective, the demon- 
strative is not repeated, as ce dont vous venez de me 
parler est horrible, what you have been mentioning 
to me is horrid. 

When it is followed by a substantive, the demon- 
strative may either be repeated or not, at pleasure, 
except in the case of a plural or a personal pronoun. 
Thus, we may say, ce que je dis est, or, c'est la 
verite, what I say is truth, though the former is 
better ; but we ought to say, ce qui mindigne, ce 
sont les injustices qiHon ne cesse de /aire, what pro- 
vokes me, are the injuries w r hich are continually 
committed ; ce qui marrache an sentiment qui 
maccable, c'est vous, what alleviates the grief that 
oppresses me, is you. Most of these rules essentially 
contribute to the elegance of language. 



1. What is astonishing is not always what is pleasing. 

2. What the miser thinks least of, is to enjoy his riches. 

3. What pleases us in the writings of the ancients is, to see that 
they have taken nature as a model, and that they have painted her 
with a noble simplicity. 

4. What that good king has done for the happiness of his people 
deserves to be handed down to the latest posterity. 

5. What constitutes poetry is not the exact number and regulated 
cadence of syllables, but it is the sentiment which animates every 
thing, lively tiction, bold figures, the beauty and variety of imagery ; 
it is enthusiasm, fire, impetuosity, force, a something in the words 
and thoughts which nature alone can impart. 

6. What we justly admire in Shakespear are those characters 
always in nature and always supported. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 453 

7. What keeps me attached to life, is you, my son, whose tender 
age has still need of my cares and counsels. 

(1.) Is astonishing, etonner; is pleasing, plaire. 
(2.) What (that to which) ; miser, avare; to, de. 
(3.) As a, pour. 

(4.) Deserves, etre digne; to be handed down, etre transmis a. 
(5.) Constitutes, faire; exact, fixe ; a something, unje ne sais quoi ; impart, 
ionner. 
(6.) We, on; those*; supported, soutenu. 
(7,) Keeps attached, attacher. 

There are two ways of employing celui. In the 
first, it is followed by a noun preceded by the pre- 
position de, and then it applies both to persons and 
things, as celui de vous qui, etc., whichever of you 
that, etc. ; or, in speaking of a grotesque figure, elle 
ressemble a celles de Calot, it is like those of Calot. 
In the second instance, it is followed by qui, que, or 
dont, and then applies more generally to persons, 
as celui qui ne pense qua lid seul, dispense les autres 
dy penser, he who thinks of nobody but himself, 
exempts others from thinking of him. 

Observation. — In this last instance, we sometimes 
omit celui, and this turn gives strength and elegance 
to the expression, as qui veut trop se faire craindre 
se fait rarement aimer. 

Ceci and cela apply only to things. 

Observation. — In familiar style, custom authorises 
us to say, in speaking of a child, or of country 
people amusing themselves, cela est heureux I for 
[ils sont heureux). 

EXERCISE. 

1 . Whichever of you shall be found to excel the others both in mind 
and body, shall be acknowledged king of the island. 

2. There are admirable pictures ; these are after the manner of 
Rubens, and those after the manner of Van-Huisum. 

3. Why are the statues of our most celebrated sculptors, notwith- 
standing the perfection to which the arts have been carried, so much 
inferior to those of the ancients ? 

4. He, whose soul blazing, as it were, with fire divine, shall repre- 
sent to himself the whole of nature, and shall breathe into the 
objects that spirit of life which animates them, those affecting traits 
which seduce and ravish us, shall be a man of real genius. 



454 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

5. He that judges of others from himself, is liable to many 
mistakes. 

6. He that is easily offended, discovers his weak side, and affords 
his enemies an opportunity of taking advantage of it. 

7. He who loves none but himself, deserves not to be loved by 
others. 

(1.) Be found to excel, onjuger vainqueur ; both in, et pour. 

(2 ) There are, voila de ; are after, etre dans; manner, genre. 

(3.) Have been carried (an active voice); inferior, au-dessous. 

(4.) Blazing with, enfiamme de ; the whole of, tout-, shall breathe into, repandre 
sur; affecting, touchant; real, vrai. 

(5.) From, d'apres; liable, expose; mistakes, meprise. 

(6.) Is offended, s'offenser; weak side, faible; affords, fournir a; of taking 
advantage, profiter. 

VI. 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

On, always in subject, denotes a sort of a third 
person vague and indeterminate. It is, by its nature 
masculine singular, and can only apply to persons. 
However, it may sometimes apply to a feminine and 
to a plural, as when a woman says, on nest pas 
toujours maitresse de so7i temps, one is not always 
mistress of her time ; or in this expression, on se 
hattit en desesperes, they fought desperately. The 
French Academy admits of these expressions. 

This pronoun is repeated before all the verbs of 
sentence, but care ought to be taken to make it 
refer to one and the same subject; thus, this sen- 
tence, on croit etre aime et Von ne vous aime pas, is 
incorrect, we ought to say, on croit etre aime et on 
ne Vest pas. 

Quiconque generally masculine, sometimes relates 
to the feminine gender, as quiconque de vous, Mes- 
dames, sera assez forte pour, etc. Nevertheless, we 
ought to use the proper expression and say, celle 
devous, Mesdames, qui sera assez forte pour, etc, 

EXERCISE. 

1. Do you really think, said Amelia to Lucilla, that when a woman 
is pretty, she is ignorant of it? No, she knows it very well, but by 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 455 

a refinement of coquetry common enough, she feigns not to perceive 
it. 

2. We are not slaves, to receive such treatment. 

3. Do you know what they do here ? They eat, they drink, they 
dance, they play, they walk, in a word, they kill time in the gayest 
manner possible. 

4. Whoever of you is bold enough to slander me, I will make him 
repent it. 

5. Whoever of you is attentive and discreet, shall receive a recom- 
pense that will flatter her. 

(1.) Really, de bonne foi ; Lucilla, Lucile; woman, on; she, etc, on; is igno- 
rant of, ignorer de ; feigns, faire semblant ; perceive, s'aperce voir, inf.- 1. 

(2.) We, on; slaves, {des) esclave; to receive, pour essuyer de. 

(3.) They (always by), on; in the gayest manner, le plus gaiment; possible, 
(that they can). 

(4.) Is, ind.-7; to slander, pour medire de; it (of it). 

(5.) That will, * fait pour. 

Chacun, though always singular, may be followed 
sometimes by so?i, sa, ses, and sometimes by leur, 
leurs. 

There is no difficulty in those phrases where 
chacun does not belong to a plural number ; we then 
make use of son, sa, ses, as donnez a chacun sa part, 
give to each his share ; que chacun songe a ses 
affaires, let every one mind his own business. 

But in phrases where chacun belongs to a plural 
number, the following rule must be carefully at- 
tended to. 

Rule. — In phrases where chacun is contrasted 
with a plural to which it belongs, we make use of 
son, sa, ses, when chacun is placed after the regimen, 
but we ought to make use of leur, leurs, when 
chacun is placed before the regimen. 

EXAMPLES. 

remettez ces medaittes, chacune en return those medals, each into its 

sa place proper place 

les hommes devraient s'aimer, chacun men ought to love one another, 

pour son propre inter et each for his own interest 

But we ought to say, les hommes devraient avoir 
chacun pour leur propre inter et, de V amour les wis 
pour les autres. 



456 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

The form of the latter part of the preceding sen- 
tence would not be adopted in English, in which 
each for his own interest, each being always deemed 
singular, would be preferred. 

Observation. — In phrases where chacun is con- 
trasted with a plural, there are two senses, the col- 
lective and the distributive. When chacun is placed 
after the regimen, the collective sense expressed by 
the plural is finished, and the distributive chacun 
must do the office which is peculiar to it, by consi- 
dering the whole kind separated into individuals ; 
but when chacun is placed before the regimen, the 
collective sense is not completed, and consequently 
it ought to be carried on to the end. This is the 
opinion of the French Academy. 

We put in the plural the pronoun which is to be 
after chacun, as la reine dit elle-meme aux deputes 
quil etait temps quits sen retournassent chacun 
chez-eux. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Go into my library, and put the books which have been sent 
back to me, each into its place. 

2. They have all brought offerings to the temple, every one accord- 
ing to his means and devotion. 

3. Thierry charged Uncelenus to carry his orders to the mutineers 
and to make them retire each under his colours. 

4. Each of them has brought his offering and fulfilled his duty of 
religion. 

5. Had Ronsard and Balzac each in his manner of writing, a suf- 
ficient degree of good, to form after them any very great men in verse 
and in prose ? 

6. After a day so usefully spent, we went back, each to his own 
home. 

7. Minds that possess any justness, examine things with attention 
in order to give a fair judgment of them; and they place each of 
them in the rank it ought to occupy. 

(1.) Sent back, renvoyer. 

(2.) Offerings, offrande. 

(3.) To carry, aller porter ; mutineers, mutin. 

(4.) (They have brought each their, etc. ;) fulfilled, remplir. 

(5.) Manner of writing, genre; a sufficient degree, astez. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 457 

(6.) Day, journee ; went "back, retourner ; to, chez with pron. personal. 
(7.) Possess, avoir de; give a fair judgment, juger avec connaissance ; place, 
mettre ; to occupy, avoir. 

Personne^ used as a pronoun, is always masculine, 
therefore the adjective relating to it must be of the 
same gender, as personne iiest aussi heureux quelle, 
nobody is so happy as she is. 

L'un et T autre require the verb they govern to be 
in the plural. — (See p. 855, General Syntax of the 
Pronouns.) 

Ni Fun hi F autre govern the verb in the plural 
when both may at the same time receive the action 
expressed by the verb ; however, the two following 
modes are authorised : 

ni Pun ni l'autre n ontfait leur devoir, or 
ni Tun ni l'autre ri 'a fait son devoir 

But when the action applies only to a single 
object, the verb must be in the singular, as ni Fun 
ni V autre nest mon pere ; ni Tun ni V autre ne sera 
nomme a cette ambassade. When ni Fun ni V autre 
stand after the verb, the verb is always in the plural, 
as its ne sont morts ni Fun ni F autre. 



1. Nobody is so severe, so virtuous in public, as tbose women who 
have the least restraint in private. 

2. Nobody could be happier than she ; but in consequence of 
that levity which you know she has, she has lost all the advantages 
that she had received from nature and education. 

3. Racine and Fenelon will be always the delight of sensible 
hearts ; both possessed in the highest degree the art of exciting in 
us at their pleasure the most tender and the most lively emotions. 

4. Balzac and Voltaire enjoyed in their time great celebrity, but 
neither has been read since good taste has made the native and 
simple graces to be preferred to the bombast of the first and the 
affectation of the second. 

(1.) Some, certain ; have the least restraint, etre le moins retenu. 

(2.) Could, ind.-2; the, (a); levity. legerete; she has (to her). 

(3.) Always, dam tons les temps; both, Vun et V autre; in, d; pleasure, gre. 

(4.) Enjoyed, ind.-4; neither, ni Vun ni l'autre; has been read (are read no 
more); native, du naturel-, simple, de la simplicity ; be preferred (active voice) ; 
bombast, bouffisure. 

X 



458 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

Tout, when in regimen direct, is placed after the 
verb, in simple tenses, and between the auxiliary 
and the participle in compound tenses, as il avoue 
tout ; il a tout avoue. But when it is in regimen 
indirect, it is always placed after the verb, either in 
simple or compound tenses, as il rit de tout; il a 
pense a tout. N. B. — Itien follows the same order 
of construction. 

Tout is sometimes used as an adverb, and merely 
as an expletive, as il lui dit tout froidement , he told 
him (quite) coolly. Sometimes also, instead of 
quoique, tres, entierement, quelque, and in such case, 
it is subject to the following rules : 

Rule I. — Tout, used instead of one of the above 
three words, does not alter its number before an 
adjective masculine, as les enfans, tout aimables 
quils sont, children, all-amiable as they are; Us 
sont tout interdits, they are quite disconcerted. 

Rule II. — Tout, used for one of the above three 
words, takes neither gender nor number before an 
adjective feminine, beginning with a vowel or h 
mute, but it takes both gender and number before 
an adjective feminine beginning with a consonant ; 
we say, la vertu tout austere quelle parait ; ces 
images tout amusantes quelles sout ; but we ought 
to say, cest une tete toute vide ; ces dames, toutes 
belles, toutes spirituelles quelles sont 

Exception* — Tout takes neither gender nor num- 
ber before an adjective feminine beginning with a 
consonant, when it is immediately followed by an 
adverb ; thus we say, cesfleurs sont tout aussi fraiches 
que celles que vous avez ; ces dames sont, tout ainsi, 
tout comme vous, belles, jeunes, et spirituelles. In 
this sense, tout is but a mere expletive. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Children, amiable as they are, have, nevertheless, many faults 
which it is of importance to correct. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 459 

2. The philosophers of antiquity, although very much enlightened, 
have given us but very confused ideas of the deity, and very vague 
notions about the principal duties of the law of nature. 

3. These flowers, inodorous as they are, are not the less sought 
after. 

4. Virtue, austere as it is, makes us enjoy real pleasures. 

5. Fables, although very entertaining, yet do not truly interest us 
but when they convey to us instruction under the veil of an ingenious 
allegory. 

6. Although that absurd pedant is an incessant scribbler, yet his 
head is altogether empty. 

7. Far be from us those maxims of flattery, that kings are born 
with knowledge, and that their privileged souls come out of God's 
hands all wise and all learned. 

8. Those fountains glide quite gently through a mead enamelled 
with flowers. 

9. These peaches are quite as good as those of the south of 
France. 

(1.) Have nevertheless, ne laisser pas d'avoir\; of importance, essentiel. 

(2.) Of nature, naturel. 

(3.) Inodorous, inodore. 

(4.) Enjoy, gouter de. 

(5.) Very, * ; convey, offrir. 

(6.) Incessant, infatigable; scribbler, ecrivailleur; (he has not less his head) ; 
altogether, tout. 

(7.) Far be, loin; are bom, naitre; with knowledge, habile-, come out, sortir; 
learned, savant. 

(8 ) Glide, cooler ; gently, doucement ; through a mead, sur un gazon. 

(9.) South, midi. 

Quelque — que is used as follows : 

1. If there be any adjective between quelque and 
que, then quelque does not take the mark of the 
plural. 

EXAMPLE. 

les rois, quelque puissants qu'ils kings, howsoever powerful they 
soient, ne doivent pas oublier may be, ought not to forget 
qu'ils sont hommes that they are men 

Quelque follows the same rule when before an 
adjective immediately followed by a substantive in 
the plural, as 

on estime peu les egoistes quelque egotists are very little thought of, 
bonnes qualites qu'ils aient d'ail- whatever good qualities they 
kurs* may have besides 

* Wailly's Grammar, page 95. 



460 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

quelque belles choses que vows whatever fine things you may 

disiez, etc.* have to say, etc. 

quelque grands torts qu'ora leur however great be the wrongs at- 

aitribuei tnbuted to them 

2. If there is any substantive between quelque 
and que, in that case quelque takes the number of 
the substantive. 

EXAMPLE. 

quelques richesses que vous ayez whatever riches you may possess 

When quelque is immediately followed by a verb 
in the subjunctive, then it must be written in two 
separate words, quel or quelle que, quels or quelles 
que. 

EXAMPLES. 

quelle que soit notre force 
quelles que soient vos richesses 
voire puissance quelle qu'elle soit 



1. Wliatever talents you may possess, whatever advantages you may 
have received from nature and education, with whatever perfections 
you may be endowed, expect not the suffrages but of a small number 
of men. 

2. Whatever great services you may have rendered mankind, rather 
depend upon their ingratitude than their acknowledgment. 

3. Howsoever useful, howsoever well composed the works which you 
have published, yet think not that you will immediately gather the 
fruit of your labours ; it is but by slow degrees that light introduces 
itself among men. The course of time is swift ; but it seems to lag 
when it brings reason and truth along with it. 

4. Whatever may be the obstacles which ignorance, prejudice, and 
envy oppose to the true principles of an art, yet we ought never to 
be deterred from propagating them ; the sun does not cease to shine 
because its light hurts the eyes of night-birds. 

5. Whatever be your birth, whatever be your riches and dignities, 
remember that you are frustrating the views of Providence if you do 
not make use of them for the good of mankind. 

(1.) Possess, avoir; have received, tenir; with, *; be endowed, posseder; 
expect, s'attendre a. 

(2.) Rather depend, compter plutot , acknowledgment, reconnaissance. 

(3.) Immediately, de suite-, gather, recueillir ; by slow degrees, avec lenteur; 
among, chez , swift, rapide ; to lag. se trainer ; along with it, a sa suite. 

(4.) We, on ; to be deterred, se rebuter ; propagating, repandre ; shine, iclairer ; 
its (the article) ; hurts, blesser ; night-birds, oiseau de nuit. 

(5.) Are frustrating, frustrer', (to do good to mankind). 

* Wailly's Grammar page 321. f Mannontel's Grammar, page 89 



OF THE VERB. 461 

CHAPTER V. 

OF THE VERB. 

Agreement of the Verb with its Subject. 

We have seen that we are to put in the plural the 
verb which has for its subject two subjects in the 
singular, but to this rule we must make the fol- 
lowing 

Exceptions. 

1. Though a verb may relate to two subjects in 
the singular, yet we put that verb in the singular 
when the two subjects are joined together by the 
conjunction ou, comme, aussi Men que, autant que, 
etc. — (See what has been said about Vun et T autre, 
p. 445.) 

EXAMPLES. 

la seduction ou la terreur l'& en- either seduction or terror has 

traine dans le -parti des rebelles drawn him into the party of 

the rebels 

le roi aussi bien que son ministere, the king, as well as his ministry, 

veut le bien public wishes for the public good 

son honnetete, autant que son es- his honesty, as much as his wit, 

prit, le fait rechercher makes him courted 

Venvie, comme Vambition, est une envy, like ambition, is a blind 

passion aveugle passion 

Observation. — With ou, it is the last substantive 
that determines the agreement, but with the others 
it is the first. 

2. The verb is likewise put in the singular, not- 
withstanding the plurals that precede it, either when 
there is an expression which collects all the sub- 
stantives into one, such as tout, ce, rien, etc., or 
when the conjunction adversative mats is placed 
before the last substantive. 



46:2 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 



EXAMPLES. 

Mens, dignites, honneurs* tout dis- riches, dignities, honours, every 

parait a la tnort thing vanishes before death 

jeux, conversations, spectacles, rien games, conversations, spectacles, 

ne la distrait nothing diverts her 

perfidies, noirceurs, incendies, was- perfidies, enormities, conflagra- 

sacres, ce w'est la qu'une faible tions, massacres, that is but a 

image, etc. feeble representation, etc. 

non settlement toutes ses richesses it not only all his riches and all his 

tous ses honneurs, mais toute sa honours, but all his virtue 

vertu s'evanouit vanishes 

EXERCISE. 

1. Either fear or impotency prevented them from moving. 

2. The fear of death, or rather the love of life began to revive in 
his bosom. 

3. Alcibiades, as well as Plato, was among the disciples of 
Socrates. 

4. Lycurgus, like Solon, was a wise legislator. 

5. Euripides, as much as Sophocles, contributed to the glory of 
the Athenians. 

6. Riches, dignities, honours, glory, pleasure, every thing loses its 
charms from the moment we possess it, because none of these things 
can fill the heart of man. 

7. The gentle zephyrs which preserved, in that place, notwith- 
standing the scorching heat of the sun, a delightful coolness ; springs 
gliding, with a sweet murmur, through meadows strewed with 
amaranths and violets ; a thousand springing flowers which enamelled 
evergreen carpets : a wood of those tufted trees that bear golden 
apples, and the blossom of which, renewed every season, yields the 
sweetest of all perfumes; the warbling of birds, the continual 
prospect of a fruitful country ; in a word, nothing of what till then 
had made him happy, could allay the sentiment of his grief. 

(1.) Jmpotency, impuissance ; moving, remuer, 

(2.) Began to revive, se reveiller ; in (the bottom of) his bosom. 

(3.) Among, au nombre de. 

(6.) We, on; none, rien; those things, tout cela. 

(7.) Preserved, entretenir; scorching heat, ardeur; strewed with, semer de, 
springing, naissant; carpets, tapis; tufted, touffu; golden (of gold); renewed, 
(which renews), se renouveller; every season (in); yields, repandre; prospect, 
spectacle; allay, Varracher a; his, *, the article. 

Of the Collective Partitive. 
The collectives general have nothing to dis- 
tinguish them from substantives common, with 
regard to the laws of agreement ; but the collectives 
partitive apparently break through those laws in 
some instances, therefore we shall give the following 



OF THE VERB. 463 

Rule. — The verb which relates to a collective 
partitive, is put in the plural when that partitive is 
followed by the preposition de and a plural ; but it 
is put in the singular, either when the partitive is 
followed by a regimen singular, or when it expresses 
a determinate quality, or lastly, when it presents 
an idea independent on the plural which follows it. 

EXAMPLES. 

la plupart des hommes sont Men the greatest part of men are very 

prompts dans leurs jug emens hasty in their judgments 

bien des philosophes se sont many philosophers have been 

trompes mistaken 

but we ought to say 

une infinite de peuple est accourue an immense number of people is 

(regimen singular) come up (flocked together) 

la moitie des soldats a p6ri, (de- one half of the soldiers has 

terminate quality) perished 

le plus grand nombre des troupes the greatest number of the troops 

a peri (idea independent on has perished 

the plural) 

Thus then, we see that the substantives partitive 
la plupart, une infinite, une foule, un nombre, la 
plus grande partie, une sorte, etc., and the words 
signifying quantity, such as pen, beaucoup, assez, 
mains , plus, trop, tant, combien, and que used for 
combien, followed by a noun joined to them by the 
preposition de, have not the least influence over the 
verb, and that consequently, it is not with them that 
the verb agrees but with the noun which follows 
them. 

Observation, — The words infinite and la plupart, 
used by themselves, require the verb in the plural, 
as une infinite pensent, la plupart sont d'avis. 



1. Many persons experience that human life is, everywhere, a 
state in which much is to be endured and little to be enjoyed. 



464 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 



2. Many poets think that poetry is the art of uniting pleasure 
with truth, by calling imagination to the help of reason. 

3. Few persons reflect that time, like money, niriy be lost by unsea- 
sonable avarice. 

4. So many years of familiarity were chains of iron which linked 
me to those men, who beset me every hour. 

o. How many wise men have thought that to seclude one's-self 
from the world, was to pull out the teeth of devouring animals, and 
to take away from the wicked the use of his poignard, from calumny 
its poisons, and from envy its serpents ! 

6. A company of young Phoenicians of an uncommon beauty, clad 
in fine linen, whiter than snow, danced a long while the dances of 
their own country, then those of Egypt, and lastly, those of Greece. 

7. A troop of nymphs, crowned with flowers, whose lovely tresses 
flowed over their shoulders and waved with the wind, swam in 
shoals behind it. 

8. At the time of the invasion of Spain by the Moors, an innu- 
merable multitude of people retired into the Asturias, and there pro- 
claimed Pelagius king. 

9. A third part of the enemy remained on the field of battle ; the 
rest surrendered at discretion. 

10. The innumerable crowd of carriages which are to be seen in 
London during winter, astonishes foreigners. 

11. The issue of the business which I have mentioned cannot but 
interest you. 

(1.) Much is (one has a great deal of pains, and little of real enjoyments). 

(2.) By, en. 

(3.) Unseasonable, hors de propos. 

(4.) Familiarity, habitude ; linked, Iter ; beset, obseder. 

(5.) To seclude one's-self, se retirer; pull out, arrachera; to take away from, 
oter a. 

(6.) Company, troupe; clad in, et vetu de; own, *. 

(7.) Tresses, cheveu; flowed, pendre; waved, flotter; with, au gre de; swam, 
nager; shoals, joule ; it (her car.) 

(8.) Moors, Maure ; retired, se retirer ; Asturias, Asturies ; Pelagius, Pelage. 

(9.) A third part, un tiers; enemy, pi. ; surrendered, se rendre. 

(10.) Crowd, quantite; which are (active voice on). 

(11.) Issue, suite; business, plural. 

Place of the Subject with regard to the Verb. 

We have seen that the subject of a verb is either 
a noun or a pronoun, and that this subject ought 
always to be expressed in French ; it now only 
remains to know its place relatively to the verb. 

Rule. — The subject, whether noun or pronoun % is 
generally placed before the verb. 



OF THE VERR 465 

EXAMPLES. 

Fambition efTrenee de quelques the unbridled ambition of a few 

hommes a, dans tous les temps men has, in all ages, been the 

He la vraie cause des revolutions true cause of the revolutions 

des etats of empires 

quand nous nageons dans Vabon- when we swim in abundance, we 

dance, il est bien rare que nous seldom think of the miseries 

nous occupions des maux of others 
d'autrui 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Youth is full of presumption ; it hopes every thing from its 
own self ; although frail, it thinks itself all- sufficient, and that it has 
nothing to fear. 

2. Commerce is like certain springs ; if you attempt to divert their 
course, you dry them up. 

3. It is enough that falsehood is falsehood, to be unworthy of a 
man who speaks in the presence of God, and who owes every thing 
to truth. 

4. The ambition and avarice of man are the sources of his unhap- 
piness. 

5. They punished, in Crete, three vices which have remained 
unpunished in all other nations : ingratitude, dissimulation, and 
avarice. 

6. Like a lion of Numidia, stung by cruel hunger, and rushing 
upon a flock of feeble sheep, he tears, he slays, he swims in blood. 

(1.) Full of presumption, presomptueux ; hopes, se promettre; itself all-suffi- 
cient, pouvoir tout; that it has, inf.-l. 

(2.) Springs, source ; attempt, vouloir; to,*; dry up, fair e tar ir. 

(3.) It is enough, suffire; falsehood, mensonge; is, subj. ; in, en. 

(5,) Punished, ind.-2 ; have remained, etre; in, chez. 

(6.) Like, semblable a ; stung by, etc. (that cruel hunger stings), devorer ; 
rushing (which rushes upon), entrer dans ; tears, dechirer; slays, egorger. 

Exceptions, 

In the following interrogative phrases, the ques- 
tion is made either with a pronoun or a noun; if 
with a pronoun, this is always placed after the verb, 
as que dit-on ? Irai-je a la campagne ? de qui parle- 
t-on? If with a noun, the noun is sometimes placed 
before, and sometimes after the verb ; it stands 
before, when the pronoun personal which answers 
to it, asks the question, as cette nouvelle est-elle sure? 
Les hommes se rendent-ils toujours a la raison ? 
It stands after, when a pronoun absolute, or an 

x2 



466 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

interrogative adverb, is placed at the beginning of 
the phrase, as que (lit votre ami ? A quoi s'occupe 
voire frere ? Ou demeure votre cousin ? 

Remark. — In interrogative sentences, when the 
verb which precedes il, elle, on, ends with a vowel, 
the letter -t- is put, by euphony, between that verb 
and the pronoun, as arrive-t-il? Fiendra-t-elle? 
Aime-t-on les vauriens ? 

If je stands after a verb ending with e mute, that 
e is changed into e acute, as aime-je? puisse-je? 
But when the transposition of je after the verb 
becomes harsh, euphony then requires another turn, 
so instead of cours-je? dors-je? which would be 
intolerable, we must say, est-ce que je cours ? Est-ce 
qaeje dors? 

EXERCISE. 

1. Have you forgotten all that Providence has done for you ! Kow 
have you escaped the shafts of your enemies ? How have you been 
preserved from the dangers which surrounded you on all sides? 
Could you be so blind as not to acknowledge and adore the all- 
powerful hand that has miraculously saved you. 

2. What will posterity say of you, if, instead of devoting to the 
happiness of mankind the great talents which you have received 
from nature, you make use of them only to deceive and corrupt 
them ? 

3. Do not the misfortunes which we experience often turn out 
prosperities ? 

4. Why are the works of nature so perfect ? Because each work is 
a whole, and because she labours upon an eternal plan, from which 
she never deviates. Why, on the contrary, are the productions of 
man so imperfect? It is because the human mind, being unable to 
create any thing, and incapable of embracing the universe at a single 
glance, can produce only after having been fecundated by experience 
and meditation. 

(1.) Escaped, echapper a; shafts, trait; preserved, garantiry on all sides, de 
toutes parts ; so as, assez pour ; saved, co,nserver. 

(2.) Devoting, consacrer ; deceive, egarer. 

(3.) Experience, eprouver; turn out, tourner en. 

(4.) Because (it is); being unable, ne pouvoir; incapable (being not able); at, 
de ; glance, vue ; can, * ; fecundated, feconde. 

2. In the incidental sentence which expresses 



OF THE VERB. 467 

that we are quoting somebody's words, as je meurs 
innocent, a dit Louis XVL, I die innocent, said 
Louis XVI. ; je le veux bien, dit-il, I am very 
willing, said he. 

3. With an impersonal verb, and these words, 
tel, ainsi. II est arrive nn grand malheur, (there 
has happened) a great misfortune has happened ; 
tel ttait Vacharnement du soldat, que, etc., such was 
the eager fury of the soldier, that, etc.; ainsi finit 
cette sanglante tragedie, thus ended that bloody 
tragedy. 

EXERCISE. 

1. True glory, said he, is founded in humanity ; whoever prefers 
his own glory to the feelings of humanity, is a monster of pride and 
not a man. 

2. There have happened, for these ten years, so many events, out 
of all probability, that posterity will find it very difficult to credit 
them. 

3. Such was the incorruptible Phocion, who answered to the deputies 
of Alexander, who were telling him that this powerful monarch 
loved him as the only honest man : Well then, let him allow me to 
be and appear so. 

4. Thus ended, by the humiliation of Athens, that dreadful war of 
twenty-seven years, to which ambition gave rise, which hatred made 
atrocious, and which was as fatal to the Greeks as their ancient con- 
federation had proved advantageous to them. 

(1.) Is founded, ne se trouver pas hors de; feelings, sentiment. 

(2.) There hai T e happened, il se passer; for, depicts; these, *; probability, 
vraisembla?ice ; will find very difficult, avoir bien de la peine; to credit, ajouter 
foi. 

(3.) The, ce; loved, cherir , honest man, homme de bien; well, ho\ then {done 
to be placed after allow); to be so, etre tel: and to appear so, paraitre le. 

(4.) Ended (was terminated); to, *; gave rise, faire naitre ; made, rendre; 
had proved, etre. 

4. When the subjunctive is used to express a 
wish, or for quand meme and a conditional, as 
puissent tous les peuples se convaincre de cette verite, 
may all nations be convinced of this truth ; dusse-je 
y ptrir, firai, were I to perish there, I will go. 

5. When the subject is followed by several words 
which are dependent upon it, and form an incidental 
proposition, which, by its length, might make us 



468 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

lose sight of the relation of the verb to the subject ; 
clearness here requires that the subject should be 
so displaced. 

Sometimes, however, this displacing of the subject 
is only the effect of taste. This happens when we 
wish to avoid an unharmonious cadence, or, when 
in the middle of a speech, an orator wishes, to rouse 
the attention of his hearers by a bold and unex- 
pected turn. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Grant the Gods that you may never experience such mis- 
fortunes ! 

2. May you, O wise old man ! in a repose varied by sweet occu- 
pations, enjoy the past, lay hold of the present, and charm your 
latter days with the hope of eternal felicity. 

3. What is not in the power of the Gods ! Were you at the bottom 
of the abyss, the power of Jupiter could draw you from it ; were 
you in Olymyus, seeing the stars under your feet, Jupiter could 
plunge you to the bottom of the abyss, or precipitate you into the 
names of black Tartarus. 

4. There, through meadows enamelled with (lowers, glide a 
thousand various rivulets, distributing every wheie a pure (and) 
limpid water. 

5. Already, for the honour of France, had come into adminis- 
tration a man, greater for his understanding and virtues than by his 
dignities. 

(1.) Grant, faire; experience, eprouver de. 
(2.) Old man, vieillard; lay hold of, saisir; with, de. 
(3.) Power, puissa nee ; could, pouvoir; stars, astre. 

(4.) Through, au milieu de; with, de; glide, serpenter ; rivulets, ruisseau; 
distributing (which distribute). 
(5.) Had come, etreentre; administration (of affairs) ; understanding, esprit. 



Government of Verbs. 

We have already observed that the regimen of a 
verb, when it is a noun, is generally placed after 
the verb : but to this rule we have one exception 
besides those which we shall mention in the next 
chapter. 

Exception. — In an interrogative sentence, the 



OF THE VERB. 469 

regimen is placed before the verb, when it is joined 
to an absolute pronoun, as quel oh jet voyez-vous? 
What object do you see ? a quelle science vous 
appliquez-vous? To what science do you apply 
yourself? De quelle affaire vous occupez-vous ? About 
what business are you employed ? 

Observation. — In French, a verb can never have 
two regimens direct ; therefore, when a verb has 
two regimens, one of them must necessarily be pre- 
ceded by the words a or de. Donnez ce livre a 
voire frere, give that book to your brother; on a 
accuse Ciceron d imprudence et de faiblesse, they have 
accused Cicero of imprudence and weakness. 

According to the natural chain of ideas, it should 
seem that the direct object ought to be placed before 
the indirect; nevertheless, as the clearness of the 
sentence does not allow it in all cases, we are to 
observe this 

Rule. — When a verb has two regimens, the 
shorter is generally placed first; but, if they be of 
equal length, the regimen direct ought to be placed 
before the indirect. 

EXAMPLES. 

les hypocrites s'etudient a parer le hypocrites make it their study to 
vice des dehors de la vertu adorn vice with the outside of 

virtue 
les hypocrites s'etudient a parer des hypocrites make it their study to 
dehors de la vertu les vices les adorn with the outside of vir- 
plus honteux et les plus decries tue, the most shameful and 

most odious vices 
Vambition sacrifie le present a ambition sacrifices the present to 
Vavenir, mais la volupte sacrifie the future, but voluptuousness 
1'avenir au present sacrifices the future to the 

present 



1. Famous examples teach us, that God has hurled down from their 
thrones princes who contemned his laivs ; he reduced to the condition of 
beasts the haughty Nebuchadnezzar, who ivanted to usurp divine honours, 

2. Miserable the man who feeds his mind with chimeras. 



470 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

3. Our interest should prompt us to prefer virtue to vice, wisdom 
to voluptuousness, and modesty to vanity. 

(1.) Teach, apprendre; hurled down, renverser ; haughty, super be ; wanted, 
vouloir. 

(2.) Feeds, repaitre. 

(3.) Should, devoir, ind.-l ; prompt, porter. 

Rule. — A noun may be governed at once by two 
verbs, provided those verbs do not require different 
regimens. 

EXAMPLES. 

on doit aimer et respecter les rois we ought to love and respect 

kings 
ce general attaqua et prit la ville that general attacked and took 

the city 

But we must not say, cet officier at aqua et se 
rendit maitre de la ville, that officer attacked and 
made himself master of the city. We ought to 
give a different turn to the sentence, by placing the 
noun after the first verb, and en before the second, 
as cet officier attaqua la ville et s'en rendit maitre, 
that officer attacked the citv and made himself 
master of it. 

This, in fact, is strictly conformable to the genius 
of the English language; for instance, to say he 
laughs at 9 and cares not for, the criticisms of the 
ignorant, is a turn very common, but very inelegant. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Luxury is like a torrent, which carries away and overturns every 
thing it meets. 

2. Nothing can resist the action of time ; in the long run, it 
undermines, alters, or destroys every thing. 

3. Among the Spartans, public education had two objects ; the 
first, to harden their bodies by fatigue ; the second, to excite and 
nourish in their minds the love of their country, and an enthusiasm 
for great things. 

(].) Carries away, entrainer; every where, renverser ; every thing, tout ce que. 
(2.) Can, * ; in the long run, a la tongue; undermined, miner. 
(3) Among the Spartans, a Sparte; to, de; harden, endurcir ; by, a; their 
must always be rendered by the article ; for, de. 



OF THE VERB. 471 

OF THE USE, PROPER OR ACCIDENTAL, OF MOODS 
AND TENSES. 

Indicative. 

The present is used to express an actual state, as 
je suis ici, I am here ; an invariable state, as Dieu 
est de toute eiernite, God is from all eternity; a 
future near at hand, as il est demain fete, to-morrow 
is a holiday ; or even a preterit, when we mean to 
make a sort of a representative picture of what 
would have been a mere narration. Thus, we find 
in Racine, jai vu votre malheureux fils traine par 
ses chevaux, I have seen your unhappy son drawn 
by his horses ; but suddenly passing from the pre- 
terit to the present, he adds, il veut les rappeler, 
et sa voix les effraie, he wishes to recal them, and 
his voice frightens them. 

N. B. — In English, the verb to be is frequently 
used with the participle present, as I am reading.* 

EXERCISE. 

1. He is in his chamber, where he is relaxing his mind from the 
fatigue of business, by some instructive and agreeable reading. 
"2. Truth, eternal by its nature, is immutable as God himself. 

3. I never let a day pass without devoting an hour or two to the 
reading of the ancients. 

4. Is it this week that the new piece comes out ? 

5. The armies were in sight ; nothing was heard on all sides but 
dreadful cries : the engagement began. Immediately a cloud of 
arrows darkens the air and covers the combatants ; nothing is heard 
but the doleful cries of the dying, or the clattering of the arms of 
those who fall in the conflict; the earth groans beneath a heap of 
dead bodies, and rivers of blood stream everywhere ; there is nothing 
in this confused throng of men enraged against one another, but 
slaughter, despair, revenge, and brutal fury. 

(1.) Is relaxing, delasser; reading, lecture. 
(2.) By, de; immutable, immuable. 
(3.) Let, *; devoting, consacrer. 

* I am translating, I shall be writing ; such construction is to be translated in 
French by the verb, put in the tense expressed by the verb to be ; thus, I am 
leading, must be expressed byje lis ; I shall be writing, by fecrirai, 



472 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

(4.) Comes out, on donner. 

(5.) Sight, presence, ind.-2 ; nothing was, etc., on ne que, ind.-2 ; the engage- 
ment began, on en venir aux mains, ind.-3; cloud, nuee ; arrows, trait ; darkens, 
obscurcir; nothing is, etc., on ne plus que; doleful, ptaintif; clattering, bruit; 
conflict, melee: groans, gemir; beneath, sous ; heap, monceau ; rivers, ruisseau \ 
stream, couler ; there is nothing in, etc., ce Uredans; throng, amas; enraged, 
acharne; slaughter, massacre. 

The imperfect is used : 1 . To denote an action 
often repeated at a time which is past, as quand 
fetais a Paris, fallais souvent aux Champs Ely sees, 
when I was in Paris, I often went to the Elysian 
Fields. 2nd. For a past which has no relation to 
the present, especially in narrations, as Rome etait 
dabord gouverme par des rois, Rome was at first 
governed by kings*. 

EXERCISE. 

1. When I was at Paris, I went every morning to take a walk in 
the Champs Elysees, or the JBois de Boulogne ; afterwards, I came 
home, where I was busy till dinner, either in reading or writing ; and 
in the evening, I generally went to divert myself at the French 
Theatre or the Opera. 

2. When I ivas in the flower of my age, like the light butterfly, I 
fluttered from object to object without being able to fix myself to 
any thing : eager after pleasure, I seized every thing that presented 
its image ; alas ! how far was I then from foreseeing that I should 
deplore with so much bitterness the loss of this precious time ! 

3. Shortly after Abraham, the knowledge of the true God appeared 
again in Palestine and Egypt. Melchisedec, king of Salem, was the 
pontiff of the most high 2 God 1. Abimelech, king of Gerar, and 
his successor of the same name, feared God, swore in his name, and 
admiredhis power. But in Moses' time, they adored even the beasts 
and reptiles ; all was God but God himself. 

(1.) Tak a walk, se promener ; in, a; come home, rentrer chez soi; was busy, 
s'occuper ; reading (by the verb); divert myself, se delasser ; French Theatre, 
Comedie Francaise. 

(2.) Butterfly, papillon; fluttered, voter; being able, pouvoir; eager after, 
avide de; its image, era art. image; how, que ; with so much bitterness (so bitterly.) 

(3.) Swore, jurer ; they, on; even,jusqu'a; but, excepte. 

In French, the preterit definite and the preterit 
indefinite, are not used indifferently one for the 
other. 

* Observe that even in the narrative style the imperfect must be subordinated 
to what has been said before and also to what follows. The above sentence being 
isolated, should require the preterit rather than the imperfect. 



OF THE VERB. 473 

We make use of the preterit definite, when speak- 
ing of a time which is entirely past, and of which 
nothing is left, as je fis un voyage a Bath le mots 
dernier, I took a journey to Bath last month ; fecri- 
vis hier a Home, I wrote yesterday to Rome. That 
nothing of that time may remain, there must be the 
interval of at least one day ; this is most in use in 
historical style. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Amenophis conceived the design of making his son a conqueror. 
He set about it, after the manner of the Egyptians, that is, with great 
ideas. All the children who were born on the same day as Sesostris, 
were brought to court by order of the king : he had them educated as 
his own children, and with the same care as Sesostris. When he 
was grown up, he got him to make his apprenticeship in a war against 
the Arabs ; this young prince learned there to bear hunger and thirst, 
and subdued that nation till then invincible. He afterwards attacked 
Lybia and conquered it. After these successes, he formed the project 
to subdue the whole world. In consequence of this, he entered 
Ethiopia, which he made tributary. He continued his victories in 
Asia. Jerusalem was the first to feel the force of his arms ; the 
rash Rehoboam could not resist him, and Sesostris carried away the 
riches of Solomon. He penetrated into the Indies, farther than Her- 
cules and Bacchus, and farther than Alexander did afterward. The 
Scythians obeyed him as far as the Tanais ; Armenia and Cappadocia 
were subject to him. In a word, he extended his empire from the 
Ganges to the Danube. 

(1.) Making, faire de; set about it, s'y prendre; after, a ; ideas, pensee ; on,*, 
brought, amener; had. educated, faire hlever ; grown up, grand; got to make, 
faire faire; apprenticeship, apprentissage ; in, par; of this, *; entered, entrer 
dans; made, rendre ; as far as, jusqu'a ; Cappadocia, Cappadoce. 

The preterit indefinite is used either for a past 
indeterminate or for a past of which something still 
remains, as fai voyage en Italie, I have travelled in 
Italy ; fai dejeiine ce matin a Londres et dine a 
Richmond, I breakfasted this morning in London, 
and dined at Richmond. 

Observation. — Some writers and persons that 
speak well, make use, in many instances, of either 
the preterit definite, or the preterit indefinite, to 
express a time entirely past; they say, fai ecrit or 



<9 



474 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

fecrivis hier ; fai tte or je fas malade la semaine 
derniere. But, however general this practice may 
be, it is better to give to these preterits their true 
destination. 

The preterit indefinite is sometimes used instead 
of a future near at hand, as avez-vous bientot fini 
Have you soon done ? Oul 9 fai fini dans le moment, 
yes, I have done in a moment. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Enflamed with the desire of knowing mankind, I have travelled 
not only to the most polished nations, but even to the most savage. 
1 have observed them in the different degrees of civilisation, from 
the state of pure nature to the most perfect state of society, and 
wherever I went, the result was the same ; that is to say, 1 have 
everywhere seen beings occupied in drying the different sources of 
happiness that nature had put in their way. 

2. I travelled this year in Italy, where I had an opportunity of 
seeing several master-pieces of antiquity, and where I made a valu- 
able collection of scarce medals. I there admired the perfection to 
which they have brought architecture, painting, and music ; but what 
pleased me most there, is the beauty of the climate of Naples. 

(1.) With, de; mankind, homme; polished nations, peuple police ; savage na- 
tions, nations sauvage ; from, depuis ; to, jusqu'a ; wherever I went, dans tons les 
pays ; the result was the same (I had the same result) ; in drying, a tarir ; in their 
way, a leur portee. 

(2.) An *; opportunity, occasion; master -pieces, chef-d'oeuvre; scarce, rare; 
pleased me most, faire le plus de plaisir. 

The two preterits anterior are made use of in the 
same manner as the two preceding preterits, but 
they are always accompanied by a conjunction or 
an adverb of time, &sje suis sorti des que fai eu dint^ 
I went out as soon as I had dined ; feus Jini hier a 
niidi, I had done yesterday at noon. 

The pluperfect denotes that a thing was done 
before another, which was itself done at a time 
which is past, as f avals soupe quand 11 entra, I had 
supped when he came in. 

EXERCISE. 

1. As soon as I had examined this phenomenon, I tried to find out 

its causes. 



OF THE VERB. 475 

2. As soon as we had crossed the river, we found ourselves in a 
wood, where there was not a single pathway traced. 

3. As soon as the great Sesostris had had his ambition 2 satisfied 1, 
by the conquest of so many empires, he returned into Egypt, where 
he devoted the whole of the day to administer exact justice to his 
people, and in the evening, he refreshed himself by holding con- 
ferences with the most honest people of his kingdom. 

4. I had only received, like most of the grandees, an education in 
which I had imbibed nothing but sentiments of pride and insensibility; 
that is, they had done every thing in their power to stifle in me the 
happy and beneficent dispositions which I had received from nature. 

(1.) As soon as, des que; tried to find out, en rechercher. 

(2.) Crossed, traverser ; found ourselves, se trouver engage; pathway, sentier de. 

(3.) The whole of the day, jour entier ; administer, rendre ; refreshed, delasser ; 
by holding conferences, a s'entretenir ; people, gens. 

(4.) Grandee, grand; imbibed, puiser; they, on; in their power (that was in 
their power), pouvoir ; stifle, etouffer ; beneficent, bienfaisant. 

Foreigners find the use of these different preterits 
attended with great difficulty, but this is owing to 
their not being sufficiently acquainted with the 
nature of the relation which they express ; the fol- 
lowing extract will better exemplify the foregoing 
rules on the use of the different tenses of the indi- 
cative mood. 

We read in Marmontel : 

Celicour, a Vdge de quinze ans, Celicour, at the age of fifteen, had 
avait ete dans le monde ce qiTon been in the world what is called 
appelle un petit prodige a little prodigy 

The author employs the form of the pluperfect, 
because he speaks of a period of time anterior to 
all those which he is going to mention, and which 
are themselves anterior to the time in which he is 
relating the story. 

il faisait des vers les plus galans du he composed the most agreeable 
monde ; il n'y avait pas dans le love-verses imaginable ; there 
voisinage une jolie femme qu'il was not a pretty woman in the 
n'eut celebree ; c'etait dommage neighbourhood that he had not 
de laisser tant de talens enfouis celebrated ; it was a pity to let 
dans une petite ville, Paris devait so many talents be buried in a 
en etre le theatre little town ; Paris was the the- 

atre that ought to have exhi- 
bited them. 



476 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

Here the author makes use of the imperfect, 
because he speaks of a period of time which was 
present with regard to that which he lias already 
mentioned ; he expresses the actual state of Celi- 
cour at that period. 

et Von fit si Men, que son pere se and they contrived matters so that 
resolut de Vy envoyer his father determined to send 

him thither 

Now, the author passes to the preterit definite, 
because he is no longer speaking of what Celicour 
was used to do, but of what he did at a time past, 
and of which nothing is left. 

ce pere etait un honnete homme, qui this father was a good sort of a 
aimait I esprit sans en avoir, et man, who was fond of wit, 
qui admirait, sans savoir pour- without having any, and ad- 
quoi, tout ce qui venait de la ca- mired, without knowing why, 
pitale. II avait meme des rela- every thing that came from the 
tions litteraires, et du nombre de metropolis. Nay, he even had 
ses correspondans etait un con- some literary connexions, and 
noisseur nomme M. de Fintac among his correspondents was 

a connoisseur of the name of 
Fintac. 

Here again, the author resumes the form of the 
imperfect, because he is now speaking of the ha- 
bitual state of Celicour's father in his little town, 
and because the author, in this passage, merely 
relates what that father was doing, at a time past, 
which has no kind of relation to the present. 

ce fut principalement a lux que Ce- it was particularly to him that 
licourfut recommande Celicour was recommended 

The form of the preterit definite is now resumed, 
because this is an action passed, at a time of which 
nothing is left, etc. Would foreigners take the 
trouble thus to decompound the phrases, we make 
no doubt that they would soon get into the habit of 
using our preterits according to their true meaning. 



OF THE VERB. 477 



EXERCISE. 

1. God, who had created his angels in holiness, would have their 
happiness to depend upon themselves ; they might insure their feli- 
city by giving themselves willingly to their Creator, but they de- 
lighted in themselves and not in God: immediately those spirits of 
light became spirits of darkness. 

2. There is a letter which Philocles has written to a friend of his 
about his project of making himself king of Carpathus. I have 
perused that letter, and it seemed to me to be the hand of Philocles. 
They had perfectly imitated his writing. This letter threw me into 
a strange surprise : I read it again and again, and could not persuade 
myself that it was written by Philocles, when I recalled to my mind 
the affecting marks which he had given me of his disinterestedness 
and integrity. 

3. Those who had shewn the greatest zeal for the state and my 
person, did not think themselves obliged to undeceive me after so 
terrible an example. I myself was afraid lest truth should break 
through the cloud, and reach me in spite of all my flatterers. I 

felt within myself that it would have raised in me a bitter remorse. 
My effeminacy, and the dominion which a treacherous minister had 
gained over me, threw me into a kind of despair of ever recovering 
my liberty. 

(1.) Have their happiness to depend (that their happiness) dependre subj.-2 ; 
might, pouvoir ; delighted in, se plaire en ; of light, lumineux ; darkness, 
tenebres. 

(2.) There is, voila ; about, sur; Carpathus, CarpatJiie; to be, * de ■ they, on ; 
again and again, sans cesse ; -written by, de ; as I recalled (recalling) ; integrity, 
bonne foi. 

(3.) Think not themselves obliged to, se croire dispense de; was afraid lest, 
craindre que; break through, percer, subj.-2: reach, parvenir jusqu'a ; in spite 
of, malgre; raised in, causer a; effeminacy, mollesse; dominion, ascendant; 
treacherous, perfide ; gained, prendre ; threw, plonger. 

Grammarians have also distinguished two pre- 
terits, which they have called super compound \ those 
are, feus eu dine, favais eu dine. Bat these tenses 
are very seldom used, since it sometimes happens 
that the first presents the same meaning as the pre- 
terit anterior definite, and the second the same as 
the pluperfect. 

The difference between the two future tenses is, 
that the period of time, expressed by the future 
absolute, may or may not be determined, asjirai, 
or firai demain a la campagne, while in the future 
anterior, the time is necessarily determined, as 
fauraifini, quand vous arriverez. 



478 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

EXERCISE. 

1. Remember that youth is but a flower, which will he dried up 
almost as soon as open. Thou wilt see thyself gradually changed 
The lively graces, the sweet pleasures, strength, health, and joy, will 
vanish like a fine dream ; nothing but the sad remembrance of 
them will be left thee. « 

2. I shall, next year, take a journey into Greece, and I am pre- 
paring myself to it by reading that of the young Anacharsis. 

3. When you have read the celebrated discourse of Bossuet on 
universal history, and studied in it the causes of the grandeur and 
the fall of states, you will be less astonished at revolutions, more 
or less sudden, that the modern empires have experienced, which 
appeared to you in the most flourishing state. 

(1.) Open, colore; gradually, insensiblement ; lively, riant) nothing will be left, 
il en r ester. 

(2.) Take, faire; reading, lecture de. 

(8.) Have read, ind.-8; and, que vous, ind -3 ; in it, y; fall, chute; sudden, 
subite', (that have experienced the modern states, which, etc.); appeared, ind.-2. 

Conditional. 

There are two different ways of expressing the 
conditional past, and this difference ought to be 
properly attended to. The first denotes in a more 
precise manner, the period of time in which an 
action would have been undertaken, and the second 
that in which it would have been completed ; 
f aurais fait, means I would have set myself about 
doing, and jeusse fait, means the thing would be 
done. 

We make use of the conditional : 

1. To express a wish, as je serais or f aurais ett 
content de reussir dans cette affaire, I should like, 
or I should have liked to have succeeded in that 
business. 

2. With si, if, whether, which expresses a doubt, 
as demandez lui sil serait venu avec nous, suppose 
qu'il neut pas eu affaire, ask him whether he would 
have come with us, had he not been busy. 

3. Before, or after the imperfect, or pluperfect of 
the indicative, as nous nous epargnerions Men des 



OF THE VERB. 479 

peines, si nous savions tnoderer nos desirs, we would 
save ourselves a deal of trouble did we know how 
to moderate our desires ; vous auriez ete plus heureux 
si vous aviez suivi mes conseils, you would have 
been more happy, if you had followed my advice. 

4. With quand, used instead of si or quoique, but 
then the verbs must be in the same conditional, as 
quand Vavare possederait tout Vor du monde, il ne 
serait pas encore content, were the miser to possess 
all the gold in the world, still he would not be 
satisfied. 

5. Lastly, for various tenses of the indicative, as 
croiriez-vous votrefils ingrat ? Could you think your 
son ungrateful? which means, croyez-voas, etc.; 
V auriez-vous soupqonne d\in tel vice ? Could you 
have suspected him of such a vice? which means, 
Favez-vous, etc. ; pourquoi violerait-il un des devoirs 
les plus saints? Why should he violate one of the 
most sacred duties ? which means, pourquoi vio- 
lera-t-il, etc. 



1. If it were even possible for men always to act conformably to 
equity, as it is the multitude that must judge their conduct, the 
wicked world would always blame and contradict them from malig- 
nity, and the good sometimes from mistake. 

2. What false steps I should have made without you, at my 
entrance into the world ! 

3. But for your counsels, I should have failed in this undertaking. 

4. How satisfied I should have been, if you had sooner informed 
me of your happiness. 

5. If we gave to infancy none but just and clear notions, there 
would be a much less considerable number of false minds in the world. 

6. Had Alexander conquered the whole world, his ambition would 
not have been satisfied ; he would still have found himself confined in it. 

7. Could you believe him vain enough to aspire to that high degree 
of honour ? 

8. Could you ever have thought him capable of deserting the good 
cause, to go and side with the rebels ? 

9. Would you renounce being useful to the present generation 
because envy fastens on you ? 



480 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

(1.) If even, quand meme; were, eond.-l ; for men (that men); to act, subj.-2; 
judge, juger de ; would blame, ind.-7; contradict, crouer, ind.-7. 
(2.) What, que de ; steps, demarche. 
(3.) But for, satis; failed, echouer. 
(4.) How, que. 

(6.) (When Alexander would have conquered) ; confined, trap a Vetroit. 
(8.) Deserting, abandonner ; to go and side, se ranger sous lea drapeaux de. 
(9.) Renounce, renoncer a; fastens, s' attacker ; on you. a vos pas. 

Observation on the use of the Conditional and 
Future, 

Foreigners are very apt to use the future or the 
conditional after si, when meaning suppose que. 
They s&y,firai demain a la campagne, s'il fera beau, 
I shall go to-morrow into the country, if it be fine 
weather ; vous auriez vu le roi, si vous seriez venu, 
you would have seen the king if you had come. 
The impropriety of this construction will be obviated 
by the following 

Rule. — When a verb is preceded by si, meaning 
suppose que, we use the present instead of the 
future absolute ; the preterit indefinite instead of 
the future anterior ; the imperfect instead of the 
conditional present, and the pluperfect instead of 
the conditional past. 

EXAMPLES. 

J'irai demain a la campagne s'il I shall go to-morrow into the 

fait beau country if it be fine weather 

il aura eu lavantage, s'il a suivi lie will have had the advantage 

vos conceits if he has followed your advice 

/? serais content si je vous voyais I should be pleased if I saw you 

applique applying to study 

faurais °ts content, si je vous I should have been pleased if I 

avais vu applique had seen you intent on your 

studies 

Observation. — This rule is not observed, either 
when si implies doubt, uncertainty, as je ne sais s'il 
\ viendra, or with the second conditional past, as 
vous meussiez trouve si vous fussiez venu ce matin. 



OF THE VERB. 48 i 

EXERCISE. 

1. A young man who is just entering the career of letters, will 
conciliate the benevolence of the public, if he consider his first suc- 
cesses only as an encouragement to do better. 

2. That absurd criticism will have amused only fools or evil-minded 
people, if one have observed the spirit that pervades the whole, and 
the manner in which it is written. 

3. Life would be attended with many more sweets and charms, if 
men. instead of tearing one another in pieces, did but forma, society of 
brethren. 

4. The Athenians would have found in the young Alcibiades the 
only man capable of insuring their superiority in Greece, had not 
that vain thoughtless people forced him, through an unjust, or at 
least, imprudent condemnation, to banish himself from his country. 

5. I know not ivhellier reason will soon triumph over prejudice and 
ignorance, but 1 am certain it will be so sooner or later. 

6. Rome had never attained that high degree of splendour and 
glory which astonishes us, had it not extended its conquests as much 
by its policy as by its arms. 

(1.) Is just entering, debuter; career, carriere ; will conciliate, s'attirer ■ con- 
sider, regarder. 

(2.) Fools, sot; evil-minded people, mediant; observed, faire attention; per- 
vades the whole, regner dun bout a I'autre. 

(3.) Attended with, avoir; tearing one another to pieces, Centre dechirer. 

(4.) Superiority, preponderance ; thoughtless, leger. 

(5. Know, savoir. 

(6. ) Attained, parvenir a ; policy, politique. 

Subjunctive, 

We have said that there are conjunctions which 
govern the indicative, and others which govern the 
subjunctive. We call principal proposition the 
phrase after which the conjunction is placed, and 
incidental or subordinate proposition, that which is 
placed after the conjunction. In this sentence, je 
crois que vous aimez ajouer,je crois is the principal 
proposition, and vous aimez a jouer, is the subor- 
dinate proposition ; que is the conjunction that 
unites the two phrases. 

General Rule. — The verb of the subordinate pro- 
position must be put in the indicative, when the 
verb of the principal proposition expresses affirma- 
tion, in a direct, positive, and independent manner ; 

Y 



482 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

but it is put in the subjunctive when that of the 
principal proposition expresses doubt, wish, fear, or 
uncertainty. 

We say, ye sais quil est surpris, I know he is sur- 
prised* je crois quil viendra, I believe he will come. 
But we ought to say, je doute quil soit surpris, I 
doubt his being surprised ; je doute quil vienne, I 
doubt his coming; je souhaite quil reussisse, I wish 
he may succeed ; je tremble qutil ne succombe, I 
tremble lest he should fail. 

EXERCISE. 

1. The glory which has been ascribed to them (Egyptians) of 
being the most grateful of all men shows that they were likewise the 
most sociable. 

2. In Egypt, if they proved that the conduct of a dead man had 
been bad, they condemned his memory, and he was denied burial. 

3. I am sure that, with moderation, gentleness, and civility, you 
will disarm even envy itself. 

4. The new philosophers say that colour is a sensation of the soul. 

5. I believe you are as honest and disinterested as you seem to be. 

6. I doubt whether the Romans would ever have triumphed over 
the Gauls, if the different chiefs of this warlike people had not been 
disunited. 

7. I could wish that the love which we ought to have one for 
another, were the principle of all our actions, as it is the basis of all 
virtues. 

8- Fear, lest it should be said that you feed upon chimeras, and that 
you take the shadow for the reality. 

9. The new philosophers will have colour to be a sensation of the 
soul. 

10. I will have you to be as honest and disinterested as you seem 
to be. 

(1.) Which has, etc., on; ascribed, donner; grateful, reconnaissant. 

(2.) They, on; man * ; was denied, priver de; burial, sepulture. 

(3.) Civility, honneiete. 

(4.) Sensation, sentiment, 

(5.) Seem, paraitre le. 

(8.) It, on ne; feed upon, se repaitre de, 

(9.) Colour to be (that colour be). 

Useful Observations. 
Do, did, will, would, should, can, coidd, may, and 



OF THE VERB. 483 

might, are sometimes signs of tenses, and sometimes 
they are real verbs. 

When do and did are joined to a verb, they are 
mere expletives, denoting interrogation, negation, 
or merely emphasis, and are not expressed in French. 

EXAMPLES. 

I do love faime 

I did love faimais or faimai 

Do I love ? aime-je ? 

Did I love ? aimais-je or aimai-je ? 

I do not love je n'aimepas 

I did not love je rCaimais pas ox je naimai pas 

But when they are followed by a noun, a pro- 
noun, or any other word, then they are real verbs, 
and mean /aire. 

EXAMPLES. 

do me that favour faites-moi ce plaisir 

he did it il lefit 

he did more than could have been il fit 'plus qu'on n'eutpu esperei 
expected 

Should is the sign of the conditional when it 
expresses a condition. 

EXAMPLE. 

1 should like a country life if my f aimer ais la vie champetre, si mes 
affairs would permit me to affaires me permettaient de suivre 
indulge my inclination mon gout 

But when it expresses a duty or obligation, it is 
a verb, and is expressed by the verb devoir, as 

we should never swerve from the nous ne devrions jamais nous ecarter 
path of virtue du sentier de la vertu 

Can, could, may, and might, in almost every 
instance, may be rendered by the verb pouvoir. 

Do, did) shall, will, etc., are sometimes used 
elliptically in the answers to interrogative sentences. 
The answer in French is made by repeating the 



484 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

verb, accompanied with a pronoun expressing the 
idea of the interrogative sentence, as 

will you do your exercise to-day ? ferez-vous votre theme aujourd'hui ? 
Yes, 1 will Oui, je leferai 

Relations between the Tenses of the Indicative. 

Rule. — When the first verb is in the imperfect, 
the preterit, or the pluperfect, and the second 
denotes a transient action, this second verb is put 
in the imperfect, if we mean to express a present, 
asjV croyais que vous aimiez V etude, I thought you 
loved study ; in the pluperfect, if we mean to express 
a past, as il massura quil navait jamais taut ri, he 
assured me that he had never laughed so much ; 
and in the present of the conditional, if we mean to 
express a future absolute, as Plat on disait que les 
peuples seraient heureux, si la sagesse ttait le seul 
objet des ministres, Plato said that nations would be 
more happy, if wisdom were the sole object of 
ministers. 

But, although the first verb may be in some of 
these tenses, yet the second is always put in the 
present, when this second verb expresses a thing 
which is true at all times, as je vous disais, je vous 
ai dit, je vous avais dit, que la sante fait la felicite 
du corps, et le savoir celle de Fame, I told you, I 
have told you, I had told you, that health consti- 
tutes the happiness of the body, and knowledge that 
of the soul. 

Observation. — In phrases where the imperfect is 
preceded by que, it denotes sometimes a past, some- 
times a present. It denotes a past when the verb, 
which is joined to it by the conjunction que, is in 
the present or the future, as vous savez or vous 
saurez que le peuple Romain etait aussi avide qu'am- 
bitieux, you know, or you will know, or you must 



OF THE VERB. 485 

know, that the Romans were a people as greedy as 
ambitious. But it denotes a present, when the verb 
which precedes it is in the imperfect, one of the 
preterits, or the pluperfect, as on disait, on a dit, on 
avait dit que Phocion etait le plus grand et le plus 
honnete homme de son temps, it was said, it has been 
said, it had been said, that Phocion was the greatest 
and most honest man of his age ; des quon eut appris 
a Athenes qu Alcibiade etait a Lacedemone on se 
repentit de la precipitation avec la quelle on V avait 
condamne, as soon as they had heard at Athens that 
Alcibiades was at Lacedemon, they repented the 
blind haste with which they had condemned him. 

Nevertheless, the imperfect denotes a past in this 
]ast instance, when it denotes an action which was 
past before that which is expressed by the first verb, 
as si vous aviez lu Vhlstoire des temps heroiques, vous 
sauriez que ces hommes dont on a fait des demi-dieux, 
etaient des chefs ftroces et barbares, dignes a peine 
du nom d homme, had you read the history of heroic 
times, you would know that those men who have 
been made demi-gods of, were ferocious and bar- 
barous chiefs, scarcely deserving the name of man. 



1. I thought you were not ignorant that, to teach others the prin- 
ciples of an art or science, one needs to have experience and skill. 

2. I had been told that your sweetest occupation was to form your 
taste, your heart, and your understanding. 

3. Darius, in his flight, being reduced to the necessity of drinking 
water muddy and infected by dead bodies, affirmed that he never had 
drunk with so much pleasure. 

4. Care has been taken to inculcate to me, from infancy, that / 
should succeed in the world, only in proportion as I should join to the 
desire of pleasing, a great deal of gentleness and civility. 

5. Ovid has said, that study softens the manners and rubs off every 
thing that is found in us rude and barbarous. 

6. You know that those pretended heroes whom Pagan antiquity 
has made Gods of, were only barbarous and ferocious kings, who 



486 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

overran the earth, not so much to conquer as to ravish it, and who 
left every where traces of their fury and of their vices. 

7. It has been said of Pericles, that his eloquence was like a thun- 
derbolt, which nothing could resist. 

8. As soon as Aristides had said that the proposition of Themis- 
tocles ivas unjust, the whole people exclaimed that they must not 
think of it any longer. 

9. Had you read the history of the early ages, you would know that 
Egypt was the most enlightened country in the universe, and whence 
knowlege spread into Greece and the neighbouring countries. 

(1.) Were ignorant, ignorer ; teach, instruire dans; needs, avoir besoin; skill, 
habilete. 

(2.) I had, etc. (by the active voice), on. 

(3.) Flight, deroute; being*; muddy, bourbeux. 

(4.) Care has, etc. (active voice), on avoir; in proportion, autant; civility, hon- 
netete. 

(5.) Rubs off, effacer', is found, se trouver de. 

(6 ) Overran, parcourir ; not so much, moins. 

(7.) It, on; thunderbolt, foudre, m. ; which (to). 

(8.) Exclaimed, s' eerier ; they must, falloir, ind.-2 ; any longer, plus. 

(9.) Ages, temps; whence, celui d'ou; neighbouring, circonvoisin ; countries, 
lieu. 

Relations which the Tenses of the Subjunctive have 
to those of the Indicative. 

Rule I. — When the verb of the principal propo- 
sition is in the present or the future, we put in the 
present of the subjunctive, that of the subordinate 
proposition, if we mean to express a present or a 
future ; but we put it in the preterit if we mean to 
express a past. 

We say, il faut que celui qui parte se mette a 
portee de celui qui Vecoute, he that speaks should 
accommodate himself to the understanding of him 
that listens; il voudra que votre frere soit de la 
partie, he will want your brother to be of the party, 
but we ought to say, pour setre tleve a ce point de 
grandeur, il faut que Rome ait eu une suite non 
interrompue de grands hommes, to have risen to that 
degree of grandeur, Rome must have had an unin- 
terrupted succession of great men. 

Exception. — Though the first verb be in the 
present, yet we may put the second in the imperfect 



OF THE VERB. 487 

or pluperfect of the subjunctive, when some con- 
ditional expression is to come into the sentence, as 
il nest point cThomme, quelque merit e quit ait, qui ne 
fut tres-mortifie, sil savait tout ce quon pense de lui^ 
there is no man, whatever merit he may have, that 
would not feel very much mortified were he to 
know all that is thought of him ; je douie que voire 
frlre eut reussi sans voire assistance, I doubt 
whether your brother would have succeeded, had it 
not been for your assistance. 

EXERCISE. 

1. He who wishes to teach an art, must know it thoroughly : he 
must give none but clear, precise, and well-digested notions of it ; 
he must instil them, one by one, into the minds of his pupils, and, 
above all, he must not overburthen their memory with useless or 
insignificant rules. 

2. He must yield to the force of truth, when they shall have suffered 
it to appear in its real light. 

3. There is no work, however perfect people may suppose it, that 
has not been liable to criticism, if it have been examined with 
severity and in every point of view. 

4. I doubt whether his piece would have had the suffrage of the 
connoisseurs, if he had not determined to make the changes you 
judged necessary in it. 

(1.) (It must that he who, etc. know it); he must (not repeated), que-, instil, 
/aire enirer ; overburthen, surcharger. 

(2 ) (It must, ind.-7, that he) yield, se rendre ; suffered, permettre ; it to appear 
(that it appear) ; real, tout. 

(3.) Has been liable, preier, subj.-2 ; with severity, a la rigueur ; in, sans; 
point of view, face. 

(4.) Had decided, se decider; in it, y (which must be placed before make). 

Rule II. — When the first verb is in the imperfect, 
either of the preterits, the pluperfect, or either of 
the conditionals, we put the second in the imperfect 
of the subjunctive, if we mean to express a present 
or a future ; but we put it in the pluperfect if we 
mean to express a past. 

We say, je voulais, fai voulu, feus voulu, je vou- 
drais, or feusse voulu que vous finissiez cette affaire ; 
but we ought to say je ne savaispas, je nai pas su. 
etc., que vous eussiez etudie les mathematiques. 



488 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

Observation. — With the preterit indefinite, we 
may put the second verb in the present, if it express 
an action which is, or may be done at all times, as 
Dieu a entoure les yeux de (uniques foists minces, 
transparentes an dehors, afiyi qiion puisse voir a 
travers, God has surrounded the eyes with very thin 
tunics, transparent on the outside, that we may see 
through ; and in the preterit if we mean to express 
a past, as il a fallu qu'\\ ait sollicite ses juges, he 
was obliged to solicit his judges. 

EXERCISE. 

1. M. de Turerme never would buy any thing on credit of 
tradesmen, for fear, said he, they should lose a great part of it, if he 
happened to be killed. All the workmen who were employed for 
his house, had orders to bring in their bills before he set out for the 
campaign, and they were regularly paid. 

2. It would be better for a man who truly loves himself to lose his 
life, than to forfeit his honour by some base and shameful action. 

3. Lycurgus in one of his laws, had forbidden the lighting of those 
who came out of a feast in the evening, that the fear of not being 
able to reach their homes should prevent them from getting drunk. 

4. People used the bark of trees or skins to write upon before 
paper was known. 

5. Go and ask that old man : for whom are you planting ? he will 
answer you, for the immortal Gods, who have ordered, both that I 
should profit by the labour of those that have preceded me, and that 
those who should come after me, should profit by mine. 

(1.) Would, vouloir; buy on credit, prendre a credit; of, chez; "happened, 
venir ; were employed, travailler ; "bills, memoir e ; he, on, 

(2.) To lose (that he would lose) ; forfeit, ternir. 

(3*) In, par; the lighting, eclairer, subj.-2; that, afin que; reach their houses, 
se rendre chez ; getting drunk, s'enivrer. 

(4.) People, on ; bark, ecorce ; skins, peau ; known, en usage. 

(3.) Have ordered, vouloir; both (by et repeated); by, de. 

In general, we put the second verb in the sub- 
junctive in interrogative and negative sentences, as 
quel est Tinsense qui tienne pour sur quil vivra 
demain ? vous ne vous persuadiez pas que les c hoses 
pussent tourner si mal. 

We also put in the subjunctive the verb which 
follows a superlative relative, and in general after 
an impersonal verb, as le meilleur cortege quun 
prince puisse avoir, cest le cceur de ses sujets. 



OF THE VERB. 489 

The use of the subjunctive is very elegant in 
elliptical turns, in which we omit the principal pro- 
position, as quil vive (je souhaite quil), may he 
live ! quil se soit oublie jusqua ce point ! (je suis 
surpris quil), that he should so far forget himself! 
qui rriaime me suive ! (je veux que celui qui) whoever 
loves me, let him follow me ; heureux Vhomme qui 
peut, ne fut-ce que dans sa vieillesse,jouir de toute 
la force de sa raison I (quand ce ne serait que), 
happy the man that can, were it but in his old age, 
enjoy the whole strength of his reason. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Is there any one who does not feel that nothing is more degrading 
in a writer than the pains he takes to express ordinary or common 
things in a singular and pompous style. 

2. Do you think that, in forming the republic of bees, God has not 
had in view to teach kings to command with gentleness, and subjects 
to obey with love? 

3. You will never be at peace, either with yourself or with others 
unless you seriously apply yourself to restrain your natural impe- 
tuosity. 

(1.) Is degrading in, dtyrader; in, de. 
(2.) Bees, abeille; had in view, vouloir. 
(3 ) Be at peace, avoir lapaix. 

Observation. — The relative pronouns qui, que, quel, 
dont, and oil, govern the subjunctive in the like 
circumstances. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Who is the writer that does not sometimes experience moments 
of sterility and languor ? 

2. There is not in the heart of man, a good impulse that God does 
not produce. 

3. Choose a retreat where you may be quiet, a post whence you 
may defend yourself. 

4. The reward the most flattering that a man can gather from his 
labours, is the esteem of an enlightened public. 

5. May he live, reign, and long make the happiness of a nation 
which he loves and that adores him ! 

6. That he should thus degr?4e himself, is what posterity will 
find very difficult to believe. 

y2 



490 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

7. A man just and firm is not shaken, either by the clamours of an 
inconsiderate mob, or by the threats of an imperious tyrant : though 
the whole world were to tumble into ruins, he would be struck by it, 
but not moved. 

(2.) Impulse, mouvement. 
(J.) May, pouvoir. 

(5.) {May he repeated before every verb). 
(6.) Find difficult, avoir de la peine', believe, se persuader. 

(7.) Is shaken, ebranler; inconsiderate, insense; mob, populace; imperious, 
fier ; though * ; were, devoir ; to tumble into ruins, s'ecrouler. 

Further Observations on the Conditional and 
Subjunctive. 

We have said that the English auxiliaries should, 
would, could, may and might, were not to be con- 
sidered as essentially and necessarily appertaining 
to the conditional and subjunctive. Indeed, it 
seldom happens that the French tenses answer to 
the English tenses as marked in the conjugation?, 
at least in subordinate propositions, though they 
may in the principal ones ; for instance, I wish you 
would come to-night, cannot be translated hyje 
souhaite ywevous viendrez ce soir, because when the 
verb of the principal proposition is in the present, 
the verb of the subordinate proposition is put in the 
present of the subjunctive, if we mean to express a 
future ; therefore we must say, je souhaite que vous 
veniez. — (See Rule I.); or, if we put the first verb 
in either of the conditionals, the second is put in the 
imperfect of the subjunctive, therefore, we may 
also say, je voudrais que vous vinssiez. — (See Rulell.) 
Now, in the first translation, que vous veniez is 
marked in the model of conjugation by that you 
may come, and in the second, que vous vinssiez by 
that you might come, neither of which is in the 
examples given. 

Again, il n'y a personne qui le croze, cannot be 
translated by there is nobody who may believe it, 



OF THE VERB. 491 

although may is the mark of the subjunctive in the 
model, but we mean, there is nobody that believes 
it, or simply, nobody believes it. 

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE TENSES OF THE DIFFERENT 
MOODS. 

Relations of the Indicative. 
The imperfect corresponds to three tenses. 

STANDARD. 

C quand vous ecriviez 
je lisais*\ quand vous aviez ecrit 
Cquand vous ecrivites 

The preterit anterior corresponds to the preterit 
definite, as quand feus lu> vous entrdtes. 

The pluperfect corresponds to the preterit 
definite, to the preterit indefinite, to the preterit 
anterior, and to the imperfect. 

STANDARD. 

f quand vous entrdtes 

., ■ 7 ) quand vous eles entre 
; avais Lu<^ » ~, , ^ 

J ) quand vous Jutes entre 

Kquand vous entriez 

Observation. — The super-compound tenses are 
seldom used, but the precision and perspicuity of 
the expression sometimes require them. 

The preterit indefinite anterior or super-com- 
pound corresponds to the preterit indefinite, as 
quand fax eu dine, vous etes entre. 

With si for suppose que, the future absolute cor- 
responds to the present, and the future anterior to 
the preterit indefinite. 

STANDARDS. 

vous partirez, sije veux 

il sera parti, si vous Vavez voulu 



492 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

Relations to the Conditional and of the Conditional. 

The pluperfect super-compound corresponds to 
the conditional past, as si favais etc plutot fini, je 
serais sorti. 

The conditional past super-compound corresponds 
to the pluperfect, as faurais eu acheve ma lecture 
avant vous, sije navais pas etc interrompu. 

With si for suppose que, the conditional present 
corresponds to the imperfect, and the first condi- 
tional past to the pluperfect, or to the second con- 
ditional past. 

STANDARDS. 
vous partiriez, sije le voulais 

.. (si je lavais vovlu 
vous senez parti < :< „ 7 

r LSije leusse voulu 

The tenses of the conditional present, and of the 
two conditional past, correspond also to themselves. 

STANDARDS. 

quand Vavare possederait tout Vor du monde, il ne seruit ^gs encore 

content 
quand Alexandra aurait conquis tout Vunivers, il n'aurait pas ete 

content 
vousfussiez parti, sije Veusse voulu 

We have seen that, when two verbs are joined by 
the conjunction que, we put the second verb some- 
times in the indicative and sometimes in the sub- 
junctive. 

Relations of the Present of the Indicative to the 
Tenses of its own Mood and of the Conditional, * 

This tense corresponds to itself, to the future 
absolute, to the imperfect, to the preterit definite, 
to the preterit indefinite, to the pluperfect, and to 
the three conditional. 



OF THE VERB. 493 

STANDARD. 

ivous partez aujourd'hui 
vous partirez demain 
vous partirez hier 
vous parities hier 
m.vous etes parti ce matin 
\vous etiez parti hier, quand, etc. 
jvous partiriez aujourd'huL si, etc. 
I vous seriez parti hier, si, etc. 
[yousfussiez parti plutot si, etc. 

Observation. — The same correspondence takes 
place, when the sentence is negative, except for the 
present absolute of the indicative, which is re- 
placed by the present of the subjunctive. We 
cannot say, on ne dit pas que vous partez aujourd'hui, 
the genius of our language requires that we should 
say, on ne dit pas que vous partiez aujourd'hui. 

The imperfect, the preterit definite, the preterit 
indefinite, and the pluperfect, correspond either to 
the imperfect or to the pluperfect. 

STANDARDS. 

on disait *\ ( ,. • j,» • 

,- f I \ vous partiez auj our dnui 



'isait -\ ( 

* I r 

..da \^ ue ) 

wait dit ) v. u 



on a u„ 

•,,.,) f vous etiez parti 

on avait ditf V r 

The future absolute and the future anterior cor- 
respond to the preterit indefinite. 

STANDARD. 

on dira ~» .. 

j., >que vous avez menti 
on aura dit J * 

Relations to the Conditional. 

The imperfect, the preterit definite, the preterit 
indefinite, the pluperfect, and the conditional past, 
correspond to the conditional past. 



494 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

STANDARD. 

je croyais ) 

fai cru 

je crus \ que vous seriez parti 

favais cru 

faurais cru j 

Relations to the Subjunctive. 

The present, the future absolute, and the future 
anterior of the indicative, correspond to the present 
of the subjunctive. 



STANDARD. 

il veut "J 

il voudra Vque vous partiez 

il aura voulu J 



The imperfect, the preterit definite, the preterit 
indefinite, the pluperfect, and the second conditional 
past, correspond to the imperfect of the subjunctive. 



STANDARD. 

je voulais 

je voulus 

j'ai voulu \ que vous partissiez 

j'avais voulu 

j'eusse voulu 

The conditional present corresponds either to t lie 
imperfect, or to the pluperfect of the subjunctive. 

STANDARD. 



7 . f vous partissiez 

ie voudrais que\ v ■ .• 

J * ivous jussiez parti 



The future past corresponds to the preterit of the 
subjunctive, as il aura voulu qxCil soit parti. 

The first and the second conditionals correspond 
to the pluperfect of the subjunctive. 



STANDARD. 



i aura is voulu\ r • *• 

% 7 > que vous fussiez parti 

j eusse voulu ) * J l 



OF THE VERB. 495 

N. B. — The numerous relations between teises 
are learnt by practice and study. 

Of the Infinitive. 

The preposition to before an infinitive, is, accord- 
ing to circumstances, rendered either by pour, by a, 
or by de, and sometimes it is not expressed at all. 

When to means in order to, it is expressed in 
French by pour, as he came to speak to me (in order 
to), il vint pour me parler. 

The participle present is used in English both as 
a substantive and an adjective 9 and frequently 
instead of the present of the infinitive. 

his ruling passion is hunting sa passion dominante est la chasse 

prevent him from doing mischief empechez-le de faire le mal 

there is a pleasure in silencing il y a plaisir a fermer la bouche 

great talkers aux grands parleurs 

Sometimes it must be expressed by the relative 
qui, especially when a different mode might cause 
an ambiguity, as I met them riding post, je les ai 
rencontres qui couraient la poste- 

Sometimes it is expressed by the conjunction que.. 
when the participle present is preceded by a pos- 
sessive pronoun, as the fear of his coming vexed us, 
la crainte qu'il ne vient, nous tourmentait ; I doubt 
his being faithful,^ doute qu'il soitfidele, etc. 

Observe that in French, the preposition en alone 
is followed by the participle present ; all other pre- 
positions require the present of the infinitive. 

Foreigners are apt to make a mistake in the use 
of the participle present, because they do not con- 
sider that, as it expresses an incidental proposition, 
it must evidently relate to the word which it 
restrains and modifies. 

Rule. — The participle present always forming a 
phrase incidental and subordinate to another, must 



496 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

necessarily relate to ^ the subject of the principal 
phrase, when it is not preceded by another verb. 

In this sentence, ,/e ne puis vous accompagner a la 
campagne, ayant des affaires qui exigent ici ma 
presence, I cannot accompany you into the country, 
having some business that requires my presence 
here ; the participle present ayant relates to the 
subject je, since the subordinate proposition formed 
by ayant, could have no kind of relation to the 
principal proposition, if it could not be resolved into 
this, parceque fai des affaires qui, etc. ; but in this 
sentence, combien voyons-7ious de gens, qui, connais- 
sant leprix du temps, le per dent mal-a-propos ! how 
many people do we see, who, knowing* the value of 
time, waste it improperly ! connaissant relates to the 
substantive gens, because it is the word which it 
restrains and modifies, and because the relative qui, 
placed between that substantive in regimen and the 
participle present, obviate every kind of equivo- 
cation. 

Observations. 

1. We ought never to use two participles together 
without joining them with a conjunction, as dest un 
homme aimant et craiguant Dieu, he is a man loving 
and fearing God. 

2. We ought never to put the relative en, either 
before a participle present or before a gerund. We 
cannot say 5t /e vous ai remis monfils entre les mains, 
en voulant faire quelque chose de bon 9 because there 
would be an equivocation, for the meaning is not, 
as I wish to do something good, or, as I wish to do 
well, 1 have put my son into your hands, but I have 
put my son into your hands, as Itvish to make some- 
thing of him; we should say, voulant en faire, etc. 

likewise, this sentence would be improper, le 



OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 497 

prince tempere la ngueur clu pouvoir, en en parta- 
geant les fonctions, on account of the repetition of 
the word en, taken under two different acceptions, 
viz. en preposition and en relative ; we must, there- 
fore, adopt another turn, such as cest en partageant 
les fonctions du pouvoir, quun prince en tempere la 
rigueur. 



CHAPTER VI. 



OF THE PREPOSITIONS A, De, and En. 

The function of the three above prepositions is, 
to put into a state of relation the two terms between 
which they are placed, either by their primitive and 
proper meaning, or by a sense of figure and extent ; 
so that in this last case, they are merely prepositions 
serving to unite the two terms, whence it happens 
that they often express, either the same relations 
that others do, or opposite relations ; for instance, 
in these two sentences, approchez-vous du feu, come 
near the fire ; eloignez-vous du feu, go from the fire, 
de merely establishes a relation between the two 
terms, without expressing in the first, the relation 
of approximation, and in the second, the relation of 
distance. In order, therefore, to form a just idea 
of these three prepositions, it is of importance to 
consider only their primitive and proper signification. 

En and dans have nearly the same meaning, but 
these prepositions differ in this, that the former 
always carries with it an indeterminate idea, as Sire 
en Angleterre ; and the latter always presents a 
determinate one, as etre dans la province de Mid- 
dlesex. 

We no longer say, en Vdge, en honneur, but we 
ought to say, a Vdge, a V honneur. 



498 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 



Distinction between the Adverb and the Preposition. 

We must not mistake prepositions for adverbs ; 
prepositions are always followed by a regimen, either 
expressed or understood — adverbs never. The same 
word may be both a preposition and an adverb. 
Avant is a preposition in this phrase, avant le jour, 
before day -light ; but it is an adverb in this, riallez 
pas si avant, do not go so forward. 

There is the same difference between autour and 
alentour ; we say, tous les grands etaient autour du 
trone, all the grandees stood round the throne; but 
we ought to say, le roi etait sur son trone, et les 
g7*ands etaient alentour, the king was upon his 
throne and the grandees stood round. 

Avant and auparavant are not used one for the 
other. Avant is followed by a regimen, as avant 
Pdques, before Easter ; avant ce temps, before that 
time. Auparavant is followed by no regimen, as 
sivous partez, venez me voir auparavant, if you set 
off, come and see me before. 

Pret a and pres de are not the same expression. 
Pret is an adjective, je suis pret a /aire ce que vous 
voudriez, I am ready to do what you please ; pres is 
a preposition, mon ouvrage est pres d'etre fini, my 
work is nearly finished. 

Au travers and a travers differ in this: the first 
is followed by the preposition de, as Use fit jour au 
travers des ennemis ; the second is not, as il se Jit 
jour a travers les ennemis, he fought his way through 
the enemies. 

Some good writers, even modern ones, use avant 
and devant indifferently, but they are wrong. 
Avant denotes priority of time and order, as il est 
arrive avant moi, T article se ?net avant le nom. 



OF THE ADVERB. 499 

Devant is used for en presence, vis-a-vis, as il a varu 
devant lejuge ; il loge devant Veglise. 

Observation. — Devant is also sometimes a prepo- 
sition marking order, and is the opposite of apres, 
as il a le pas devant moi, he has precedence of me; 
si vous etes presse, courez devant, if you are in a 
hurry, run before. 



CHAPTER VII. 

OF THE ADVERB. 
On the Negative ne. 



Negation is expressed in French by ne, either by 
itself, or accompanied by pas or jjoint, upon which 
the French Academy has examined four questions: 

1. Where is the place of the negatives ? 

2. When are we to make use of pas in preference 
to point, and vice versa ? 

3. When may we omit both ? 

4. When ought we to omit both ? 

As this subject is of very material importance, 
we shall treat it upon the plan of the Academy, and 
agreeably to their views. 

FIRST QUESTION. 

Where is the place of the negatives ? 

Ne is always placed before the verb, but the place 
of pas and point is variable. When the verb is in 
the infinitive, they are placed indifferently before or 
after it, for we say, pour ne point voir, or pour ne 
voir pas. In the other moods, except the impera- 
tive, the tenses are either simple or compound ; in 
the simple tenses, pas or point is placed after the 



500 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

verb : il ne parle pas ; ne parle-t-il pas ? In the 
compound tenses, it is placed between the auxiliary 
and the participle : il ria ]ms parle ; n'a-t-il pas 
parle? In the imperative, it is placed after the 
verb: ne badinez pas ; ne votes en allez pas. 

SECOND QUESTION. 

When are we to make use of pas in preference to 
point, and vice versa ? 

Point is a stronger negative than pas; besides, it 
denotes something permanent, il ne lit point, means, 
he never reads. Pas denotes something accidental, 
il ne lit pas, means, he does not read now, or, he is 
not reading. Point de denotes an unreserved 
negation ; to say, il lia point d? esprit, is to say, he 
has no wit at all. Pas de allows a liberty of making 
a reserve ; to say, il ria pas d 'esprit, is to say, he 
has nothing of what can be called wit. 

Hence the Academy conclude that pas comes 
better, 1. Before plus, moms, si, aidant, and other 
comparative words, as Milton nest pas moins sub- 
lime quHomere, Milton is not less sublime than 
Homer. 2. Before nouns of number, as il n'y a 
pas dix ans, it is not ten years ago. 

It is elegant to make use of point, 1. At the end 
of a sentence, as on s'amusait a ses depens, et il ne 
sen apperfet ait point, they were amusing themselves 
at his expense, and he did not perceive it. 2. In 
elliptical sentences, as je croyais avoir affaire a un 
honnete homme; mais point, I thought I had to deal 
with an honest man; but no. 3. In the answers 
to interrogative sentences, as irez-vous ce soir an 
pare? point, shall you go this evening to the park ? 
no. 

The Academy also observe, that when pas or 
point is introduced into interrogative sentences, it is 



OF THE ADVERB. 501 

with meanings somewhat different. We make use 
of point when we have some doubt in our minds, as 
rt avez-vous point ete /a? have you not been there? 
Bat we make use of pas when we are persuaded ; 
thus, n' avez-vous pas ete la ? answers to this English 
expression, but you have been there, have you not? 

THIKD QUESTION. 

When may we omit both pas and point?. 

We may suppress them, 1st , after the words 
cesser, oser, and pouvoir, but this omission is only 
for the sake of elegance, as 

je ne cesse de nCen occuper I am incessantly about it 

je n'ose vous en parler I dare not speak to you about it 

je nepuis y penser sansfremir I cannot think of it without shud- 

dering 

We likewise say, but only in conversation, ne bougez, 
do not stir. 2nd. In these kinds of expressions : 

y a-t-il un homme dont elle ne is there a man that she does not 

medise ? slander ? 

avez-vous un ami qui ne soit des have you a friend that is not 

miens ? mine ? 

FOURTH QUESTION. 

When ought we to omit both pas and point ? 

We omit them, 1st., when the extent which we 
mean to give to the negative is sufficiently declared, 
either by the words which restrict it, or by words 
which exclude all restriction, or lastly, by words 
which denote the smaller parts of a whole, and 
which are without article. 

In the first instance, we say 

je ne sors guere I go out but seldom 

je ne sortirai de trois jours I shall not go out for these three 

days 



502 



PARTICULAR SYNTAX 



In the second instance, we say 



je riy vais jamais 
je riy pense plus 
nul ne sait sHl est digne & amour ou 

de haine 
ri employ ez aucun de ces stratagemes 
il ne plait a personne 
rien ri est plus charmant 
je n'y pense nullement 



I never go thither 

I think no more of it 

nobody knows whether he be 

deserving of love or hatred 
use none of these stratagems 
he pleases nobody 
nothing is more charming 
I do not think of it at ail 



In the third instance, we say 

il n'y voit goutte he cannot see at all 

je rien ai cueilli brin I did not gather a bit 

il ne dit mot he speaks not a word 

but, if to mot we join an adjective of number, we 
must add pas, as 



il ne dit pas un mot qui riinteresse 

dans ce discours il riy a pas trois 
mots a reprendre 



he speaks not a word but what is 

interesting 
in that speech there are not three 

words to find fault with 

We likewise make use of pas with the preposition 
de, as 

tine fait pas de demarche inutile he does not take any useless step 

Observation. — If, after the sentences we have just 
mentioned, either the conjunction que, or a relative 
pronoun should introduce a negative sentence, then 
we omit pas and point, as 



je nefais jamais d'exces queje rien 

sois incommode 
je ne vois personne qui ne vous hue 



I never commit any excess with- 
out being ill after it 

I see nobody but what commends 
you 



2nd. When two negatives are joined by ni, as je 
ne Vaime ni ne Festime, I neither love nor esteem 
him ; and when the conjunction ni is repeated, 
either in the subject as niVor ni la grandeur ne 
nous rendent heureux, neither gold nor greatness 
can make us happy : or in the attribute, as il nest 



OF THE ADVERB. 503 

ni prudent ni sage, he is neither prudent nor wise : 
or in the regimen, as il n'a ni defies ni proces, he 
has neither debts nor lawsuits. 

Observation. — We may preserve pas, when ni is 
not repeated, and when it is separated from the first 
negative by a certain number of words, as 

je rtaime pas ce vain etalage d'eru- I do not like that vain display 
dition, prodiguee sans choix et of erudition, lavished without 
sans gout, ni ce luxe de mots qui choice and without taste, nor 
ne disent rien that pomp of words which 

have no meaning 

3rd. With ne que, used instead of settlement ; 
with the verb which follows que, used instead of 
pourquoi ; with a moins que, or si used instead of it : 

une jeunesse qui se livre a ses pas- youth which abandons itself to 

sions, ne transmet a la vieillesse its passions, transmits to old 

quun corps use age nothing but a worn-out 

body 

que rtetes vous aussipose que votive why are you not as sedate as your 

frere ? brother ? 

je ne sortirai pas, a moins que vous I shall not go out, unless you 

ne veniez me prendre come to fetch me 

je iCirai pas chez-lui, s'il ne m-y I shall not go to his house, if he 

engage does not invite me (to it) 

4th. When before the conjunction que 9 the word 
rien is understood, as il ne fait que rire, he does 
nothing but laugh ; or when that conjunction may- 
be changed into sinon or si ce nest que, as il ne tient 
qua vous de reussir, it only depends on you to 
succeed, that is, the success wholly depends upon 
you ; trop de maitres a la fois ne servent qu'a em- 
brouiller V esprit, too many masters at once only 
serve to perplex the mind. 

5 th. With a verb in the preterit, preceded by the 
conjunction depuis que, or by the verb il y a 
denoting a certain duration of time, as 



504 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

comment vous etes-vous parte depuis how have you been since I have 

queje ne vous ai vu seen you ? 

ily a trois mois ouej :ne vous aivu I have not seen you for these 

three months 

Observation. — But we do not omit them when 
the verb is in the present, as 

comment vit-il depuis que nous ne how does he live since we do not 

le voyons point? see him ? 

il y a six mois que nous ne le we have not seen him these six 

voyons point months 

6th. In phrases where the conjunction que is 
preceded by the comparative adverbs plus, moms, 
mieux, etc., or some other equivalent, as 

on meprise ceux qui parknt autre- we despise those who speak dif- 
ment quits ne pensent ferently from what they think 

il ecrit mieux quHl ne parle he writes better than he speaks 

c'est pire qu'on ne le disait it is worse than was said 

c'est autre chose que je ne croyais it is different from what I thought 

peu s'enfaut qu'on ne m'ait trompe I have been very near being de- 
ceived 

7th. In sentences united by the conjunction que 
to the verbs douter, desesptrer, nier, and disconvenir, 
forming a negative member of a sentence, as 

je ne doute pas quit ne vienne I doubt not that he will come 

ne desesperez pas que ce moyen ne do not despair of the success of 

vous reussisse these means 

je ne nie pas or je ne disconviens I do not deny, or I do not dispute 

pas que cela ne soit that it is so 

Observation. — The Academy say, that after the 
last two verbs, ne may be omitted, as je ne nie pas, 
orje ne disconviens pas que cela soit. 

8th. With the verb united by the conjunction que 
to the verbs empecher and prendre garde, meaning, 
to have a care, as 

j'empecherai bien que vous ne soyez I shall prevent your being of the 

du nombre number 

prsnez garde qu'on ne vous seduise have a care that they do not se- 
duce you 



OF THE ADVERB. 505 

Observation. — The Academy make the remark 
that in the above acceptation, prendre garde is fol- 
lowed by a subjunctive ; but when it means to 
reflect, we make use of the indicative, and of pas or 
point, as 

prenez garde que vous ne nCentendez mind, reflect, consider that you do 
pas not understand what I mean 

9th. With the verb united with the conjunction 
que, to the verb craindre, and those of the same 
meaning, when we do not wish the thing expressed 
by the second verb, as 

il craint que son frere ne Vaban- he is afraid that his brother 

donne should forsake him 

je crains que mon ami ne meure I fear my friend will die 

Butjoasis not omitted when we wish the thing 
expressed by the second verb, as 

je crains que mon pere rtarrive pas I am afraid my father will not 

come 

10th. With the verb which follows de penr que, 
de crainte que, in the same case as with craindre ; 
thus, when we say, de crainte qu 9 il ne perde son 
process, we wish that he may win it ; and de crainte 
qiiil ne soit pas puni, we wish that he may be 
punished. 

11th. After savoir, whenever it has the meaning 
of pouvoir, asje ne saurais en venir a bout, I cannot 
bring it about; when it means etre incertain, it is 
best to omit them, as je ne sais oil le prendre, I do 
not know where to find him ; il ne sait ce qiiil dit, 
he does not know what he says. 

Observations. — But we ought to make use of pas 
or point when savoir is taken in its true meaning, 
-dsje ne sais pas le Francais, I do not know French. 

z 



506 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 

12th. We also say, ne vous deplaise, ne vous en 
deplaise, by your leave, under favour. 

Plus and davantage are not used one for the 
other ; plus is followed by the preposition de, or 
the conjunction que> as 

il a plus de brillant que de solide he has more brilliancy than soli- 
dity 

il se fie plus a ses lumieres qu'a he relies more upon his own 
celles des autres knowledge than upon that of 

others 

Davantage is never followed by the preposition 
de, and is used alone and at the end of sentences, 
as 

la science est estimable, mais la vertu learning is estimable, but virtue 
est davantage is still more so 

It is incorrect to make use of davantage for le plus, 
we ought to say, 

de toutes lesfleurs d'un parterre, la of all the flowers of a parterre 
rose est celle qui me plait le plus the rose is that which pleases 

me most 

Si, aussi, tant, and autant, are always followed 
by the conjunction que-, si and aussi are joined to 
adjectives and participles ; tant and autant to sub- 
stantives and verbs. 

VAngleterre ri est pas si grande que England is not so large as France 

la France 
il est aussi estime qu'aime he is as much esteemed as he is 

loved 
elle a autant de beaute que de vertu she has as much beauty as she 

has virtue 

Observation. — We may, nevertheless, substitute 
autant for aussi, when preceded by one of the ad- 
jectives, and followed by que and the other adjective, 
as il est modeste autant que sage. 

Aussi and autant are used in affirmative sentences, 
si and tant in negative or interrogative ones ; the 



OF THE ADVERB. 507 

last two are, however, the only ones that can be used 
in affirmative sentences, when they are put for 
tellement, as 

il est devenu si gros, qu'il a de la he is become so stout that he can 

peine a marcher hardly walk 

il a tant couru quHl en est hors he has been running so fast that 

dlialeine he is out of breath 

We must not confound a la campagne and en 
campagne \ the latter never applies but to the 
movement of the troops, as 

Varmee est en campagne the army has taken the field 

but we ought to say 

j'ai passe Vete a la campagne I have spent the summer in the 

country 

Jamais takes sometimes the preposition a, as 
soyez a jamais heureux, be for ever happy ; and 
toujours takes the preposition pour, as cest pour 
toujours, it is for ever. 



508 OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 

Grammatical construction, in the French language, 
is the order which the genius of that language has 
assigned, in discourse, to the nine sorts of words 
which we have distinguished. Some persons mis- 
take it for syntax, but there is this difference, viz. 
that syntax consists in the rules which we are to 
observe in order to express the relations of words 
one to another, whereas grammatical construction 
consists in the various arrangements which we may 
allow ourselves to make, while observing the rules 
of syntax. Now, this construction is irrevocably 
fixed, not only as the phrases may be interrogative, 
imperative, or expositive, but also as each of these 
kinds may be affirmative or negative. 

In interrogative sentences with affirmation, the 
subject is either a noun or a pronoun. 

If the subject be a noun, this is the order of the 
words : the noun, the verb, the corresponding per- 
sonal pronoun, the adverb (if any), and the regimen 
in the simple tenses, or in the compound tenses, 
the pronoun and the adverb between the auxiliary 
and the participle, as 

les lumidres sont-elles un bienpour are sciences a benefit to nations ? 
les peuples ? ont-ellesjamais con- have they ever contributed to 
tribue a leur bonheurl their happiness ? 

If the subject be a pronoun, the verb begins the 
series, and the other words follow it in the same 
order which we have pointed out, as 

vous plairez-vous toujours a me- will you always take a pleasure 

dire ? in slandering ? 

aurez-vous bientot fini? shall you have soon done ? 



OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 509 

N.B. — When the verb is reflected, the pronoun 
in regimen begins the series, as may be seen in the 
first instance, because this pronoun always preserves 
its place before the verb, except in imperative sen- 
tences, with affirmation. 

In interrogative sentences, with negation, the 
same order holds, but we place ne before the verb, 
and pas or point after the verb, with the charac- 
teristic of the interrogation in the simple tenses, 
and between the auxiliary and the participle in the 
compound tenses, as 

votre frere ne viendra^Uil pas de- will not your brother come to- 

main? morrow? 

n'aurez-vous pas bientdtfini ? shall you not have done soon ? 

Observation. — There are in French several other 
ways of making an interrogation. 1st. With an 
absolute pronoun, as qui vous a dit cela? or qui 
est-ce qui vous a dit cela ? who told you that ? 
2nd. With the demonstrative pronoun ce, as est-ce 
vous ? is it you ? est-ce quil pleut ? does it rain ? 
3rd. With an adverb of interrogation, as pourquoi 
ne vient-il pas ? why does he not come? comment 
vous trouvez-vous? how do you find yourself? 
Hence, we see that the absolute pronouns and the 
interrogative adverbs are always at the head of the 
sentence, but the demonstrative pronoun always 
comes after the verb. 

Sentences are imperative, when, in speaking, we 
command, exhort, entreat, or forbid. 

In imperative sentences, with affirmation, the 
verb is always the first in the first two persons, but 
in the third, it never comes but after the conjunction 
que, and the noun or pronoun, as 

aUons-la let us go thither 

venez id come hither 

quHls y aitteni let them go thither 

que Pierre aille a Londres let Peter go to London 



510 OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 

In those with negation, ne and pas are placed as in 
interrogative sentences. 

As to the place of the pronouns, see p. 337. 

Sentences are expositive when we speak without 
either interrogating or commanding. This is the 
order of the words in those which are affirmative : 
the subject, the verb, the adverb, the participle, the 
regimen, as 

vra bon prince merite V amour de ses a good prince deserves the love 

sujets et Vestime de tous les of his subjects, and the esteem 

peuples of all nations 

Cesar eut inutilement passe le Ru~ Cesar would have crossed the 

bicon, sHl y eut eu de son temps Rubicon to no purpose, had 

des Fabius there been Fabius' in his time 

The negative sentences differ from this construction 
only as ne is always placed before the verb, and pas 
or point either after the verb, or between the aux- 
iliary and the participle, as 

un homme riche nefait pas toujour s a rich man does not always do all 

le Men qu'il pour rait the good he might 

Ciceron rt eut pus peuUetre ete un Cicero would not perhaps have 

si grand orateur, si le desir de been so great an orator, had not 

s'elever aux premieres digniies the desire of raising himself to 

neut enflamme son dme the first dignities inflamed his 

soul 

For the place of the pronouns in regimen, see 
p. 341. 

Sentences are either simple or compound. They 
are simple, when they contain only one subject and 
one attribute, as vous lisez, you read ; votes etes 
jeune, you are young. They are compound when 
they compare several subjects to one attribute, or 
several attributes to one subject, or several attri- 
butes to several subjects, or several subjects to 
several attributes. This sentence, Pierre et Paul 
sont heureux, is compound by several subjects ; this, 
cette femme est jolie, spiritaelle, et sensible, is com- 



OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 51 I 

pound by several attributes ; and this other, Pierre 
et Paul sont spirituels et savans, is compound at 
once by several subjects and several attributes. 
The simple sentence contains but one judgment; 
the compound sentence contains several. 

A sentence may be compound in various other 
ways ; by the subject, by the verb, or by the attri- 
bute. 

By the subject, when the subject is restricted by 
an incidental proposition, as Dieu qui est bo?i. 

By the verb, when this verb is modified by some 
circumstance of time, order, etc., as Dieu qui est 
bon n ahandonne jamais. 

By the attribute, when this attribute is modified 
by a regimen which is itself restricted, as Dieu qui 
est bon ri 'ahandonne jamais les homines qui met tent 
sincerement leur confiance en lui. 

These simple or compound sentences may be 
joined to others by a conjunction, as quand on aime 
V etude, le temps passe, sans quon sen appergoive, 
when one loves study, time flies without one's per 
ceiving it. The two partial phrases form but one. 

Pule. — When a proposition is composed of two 
partial phrases, joined by a preposition, harmony 
and perspicuity generally require the shortest to go 
first. 

EXAMPLES. 

quand les passions nous quittent, when our passions leave us, we 

nous nous flattens en vain que in vain natter ourselves that it 

c'est nous qui les qulttons is we that leave them 

on n'est point a plaindre, quand, au he is not to be pitied who, for 

defautdebiens reels, on trouve le want of real pleasures, finds 

moyende s'occuper dechinieres means to amuse himself with 

chimeras 

Periods result from the union of several partial 
phrases, the whole of which makes a complete sense. 
Periods, to be clear, require the shortest phrases to 



512 OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 

be placed first. The following example of tins is 
taken from Flechier. 

N'attendez pas, Messieurs, 

1. Que j'ouvre une scene tragi que ; 

2. Que je represente ce grand hornme etendu sur ses propres 
trophees ; 

4. Que je de'couvre ce corps pale et sanglant, aupres duquel fume 
encore la foudre qui l'a irappe ; 

4. Que je fasse crier son sang comme celui d'Abel, et que j'expose 
a vos yeux les images de la religion et de la patrie eploree. 

This beautiful period is composed of four mem- 
bers, which go on gradually increasing. It is a 
rule not to give more than four members to a 
period, and to avoid multiplying incidental propo- 
sitions. Obscurity in the style is generally owing 
to those propositions, which divert the attention 
from the principal propositions, and make us lose 
sight of them. 

The construction which we have mentioned is 
called direct or regular, because the words are 
placed in those sentences according to the order 
which we have pointed out ; but this order may be 
altered in certain cases, and then, we say that the 
construction is indirect or irregular ; now it may be 
irregular, by inversion, by ellipsis, by pleonasm, or 
by syllepsis ; these are what we call the four figures 
of words. 



OF INVERSION. 



Inversion is the transposition of a word into a 
place different from that which we have assigned it. 
We ought never to make use of it but when it 
throws more clearness, energy, or harmony upon 
the language ; for, it is bad construction whenever 
the relation of the correlatives is not easily 
perceived. 



OP GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION* 513 

There are two kinds of inversion : the one, which 
by its boldness, seems to be confined to poetry ; the 
other, which is of ordinary use even in prose. We 
speak here of the latter kind only. 

The following are those which are authorised by 
custom : 

1st. We may very well place after the verb the 
subject by which it is governed, as tout ce qui lux 
promet Tamitie des Homains, all that the friendship 
of the Romans promises him. 

Observation. — This inversion is a rule of the art 
of speaking and writing, whenever the subject is 
modified by an incidental proposition, long enough 
to make us lose sight of the relation of the verb 
governed to the subject governing. 

2nd. We may also very properly place before the 
governing, the noun governed by the prepositions 
de and a, as dune voix entrecoupee de sang lots 9 Us 
secritrent, in a voice interrupted by sobs, they 
exclaimed ; a tant d injures qua-t-elle repondu ? to 
so much abuse, what answer did she give ? 

We also very elegantly place before the verb the 
prepositions apres, dans, par, sous, contre, etc., with 
what is to follow them, as well as the conjunctions 
si, quand, parceque, puisse, quoique, lorsque, etc., as 
par la loi du corps, je tiens a ce rnonde qui passe, by 
the law of the body, I am linked with this transient 
world ; puisquil le veut, quit lefasse, since he will 
have it so, let him do it. 



OF THE ELLIPSIS. 



Ellipsis is the omission of a word, or even several 
words, which are necessary to make the construction 
full and complete. That the ellipsis may be good, 

z 2 



514 OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 

the mind must be able easily to supply the value of 
the words omitted, as j % accepter ais les offres de 
Darius , sifetais Alexandre ; et moi aussi, si Jetais 
Parmenion, I would accept the offers of Darius, if 
I were Alexander; and so would I, if I were Pai- 
menion. Here the mind easily supplies the words 
je les accepterais in the second member. 

The ellipsis is very common in the answers to 
interrogative sentences, as quand viendrez-vous ? 
demain, when will you come? to-morrow; that is, 
je viendrai demain. 

In order to know whether an ellipsis be good, the 
words that are understood must be supplied. It is 
exact, whenever the construction full and complete 
makes up the sense denoted by the words that are 
joined and by the circumstances ; otherwise, it is not 
exact. 



OF THE PLEONASM. 



Pleonasm, in general, is a superabundance in the 
expression. To be good, it must be authorised by 
usage, and we may with truth affirm, that usage 
authorises only those which either give a greater 
degree of energy to discourse, or express in a clearer 
manner the inward sentiment with which we are 
affected. Et que ma fait a moi ceite Troie ouje 
cours ? je me meurs ; sil ue veut pas vovs le dire,je 
vans le dirai, moi ; je Vai vu de mes propres yeux ; 
je Vai entendu de mes propres oreilles : a moi in the 
first instance ; me, in the second ; moi 9 in the third ; 
de mes propres yeux, in the fourth ; and de mes 
propres oreilles, in the fifth, are there merely for the 
sake of energy, or to manifest an inward sentiment; 
but these manners of speaking are sanctioned by 
custom. 



CF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 515 

N.B. — The above sentences will not bear an 
English translation with a pleonasm, except the last 
two. 

Observation. — We must not mistake for pleonasms 
those words which are merely expletive, as cest une 
affaire ou il y va du salut de Vetat, it is an affair in 
which the safety of the state is concerned ; which is 
better than cest une affaire oil il va, etc., by omitting 
y which is useless on account of oil ; but those are 
expressions from which we are not allowed to take 
away any thing.— Academy . 

OF THE SYLLEPSIS. 

The Syllepsis takes place whenever we make a 
word figure more with the idea we have of it, than 
with the word to which it relates. 

There is a syllepsis in these expressions : il est 
onze heures ; Van milsept-cent-quatre-vingt-dix-neuf* 
When we make use of it, the mind, merely intent 
upon a precise meaning, pays no attention to either 
the number or the gender of heiire and an. 

There is likewise a syllepsis in these sentences : 
je crains quit ne vienne ; fempecherai quil ne vons 
nuise ; jai pear quil ne irioublie, etc. Full of a 
wish that the event may not take place, we are 
willing to do all we can that nothing should put an 
obstacle to that wish ; this is the cause of the intro- 
duction of the negative; and, although it is useless 
to complete the sense, yet we must preserve it, as 
we have already mentioned. 

There is again a syllepsis, and a very elegant one, 
in sentences like the following ones : 

Racine has said : 

Entre le peuple et vous, vous prendrez Dieu pour juge; 
Vous souvenant, mon fils, que cache sous ce lin, 
Comme eux vous lutes pauvre, et com me eux orphelin 



516 OF GRAMMATICAL DISCORDANCES. 

The poet forgets that he has been using the word 
peuple ; nothing remains in his mind but despauvres 
and des orphelins, and it is with that idea of which 
he is full that he makes the pronoun eux agree. 
For the same reason, Bossuet and Mezengui have 
said, the former, quand le peuple Hebreu entra da?is 
la terre promise, tout y celebrait leurs ancetres; and 
the latter, Mo'ise eut recours au Seigneur, et lux dit : 
que ferai-je a ce peuple? bientot iis me lapideront. 
Leurs and Us are for les Hebreux. 



CHAPTER IX. 

OF GRAMMATICAL DISCORDANCES, AMPHIBOLOGIES^ 
AND GALLICISMS. 

We have chiefly to take notice of two vicious con- 
structions, which are contrary to the principles 
which we have established in the preceding chapters, 
viz. grammatical disagreements and amphibologies. 

1. In general, there is disagreement in discourse, 
when the words which compose the various members 
of a sentence or a period, do not agree one with 
another, either because they are construed against 
analogy, or because they bring together dissimilar 
ideas, between which the mind perceives oppo- 
sition, or can see no manner of affinity. 

The following examples will serve to illustrate 
this matter. 

This sentence, notre reputation ne depend pas des 
louanges quon nous donne, mais des actions louables 
que nous faisons, is not correct, because the first 
member being negative, and the second affirmative, 
cannot come under the government of the same 
verb. We ought to say, notre reputation depend, 
non des louanges quon nous donne, mais des actions^ 



OF AMPHIBOLOGIES. 517 

etc., our reputation depends, not upon the praises 
which are bestowed on us, but upon the praise- 
worthy actions which we are doing. 

This other, sa reponse est die tee, ainsi que son 
silence, is also incorrect, because the participle 
dictee, being used in the feminine in the first mem- 
ber, cannot be understood in the masculine in the 
second. 

But the most common disagreements are those 
which arise from the wrong use of the tenses. 

We find one of this kind in this sentence, il 
regarde voire malheur comme une punition du pen de 
complaisance que vous avez eue pour lui, dans le 
temps quHl vous pria, etc., because the two preterits, 
definite and indefinite, cannot well come in together ; 
it should be, que vous eutes pour lui dans le temps 
quit vous pria. 

There is another in this sentence, on en ressentit 
autant de joie que d'une victoire complete dans un 
autre temps, because the verb cannot be understood 
after the que which serves for the comparison, when 
that verb is to be in a different tense ; it should Ije, 
on en ressentit autant de joie quon en aurait res- 
sentit, etc. 

This line of Racine, 

Le Hot qui l'apporta recule epouvante, 

is also incorrect, because the form of the present 
cannot come in with that of the preterit definite ; 
it should have been, qui Va apportL 



OF AMPHIBOLOGIES. 



There is amphibology in discourse, when a sen- 
tence is so construed as to be susceptible of two 



518 OF AMPHIBOLOGIES. 

different interpretations ; it ought to be carefully 
avoided. As we speak only to be understood, 
perspicuity is the first and most essential quality of 
language ; we should always recollect that what is 
not clearly expressed is not French. 

Amphibologies are occasioned, 1st. By the us^ 
of the moods of tenses. 2nd. By the personal 
pronouns il, le, la, etc. 3rd. By the possessive 
pronouns son, sa, ses, etc. 4th. By nouns not being 
in the places they ought to occupy. 

EXAMPLE 

Of an Amphibology of the First kind. 

Qu'ai je fait, pour venir accabler en ces lieux 
Un heros, sur qui seul j'ai pu tourner les yeux? 

Pour venir makes amphibology, because we do 
not know whether it relates to the person who 
speaks, or to the person spoken to ; it should have 
been, pour que vous veniez. 

EXAMPLE 

Of an Amphibology of the Second hind. 

Cesar voulut premierement surpasser Pompee ; les grandes richesses 
de Crassus hi firent eroire qu'il pourrait partager la gloire de ces 
deux grands hommes. 

This sentence is vicious in its construction, 
because the pronouns il and lui seem to relate to 
Cesar, although the sense obliges us to refer them 
to Crassus. 



Of an Amphibology of the Third kind. 

Valere alia chez Leandre ; il y trouva sonfils. 

The pronoun son is equivocal, because we do not 
know to which it relates, to Valere or to Leandre. 



OF GALLICISMS. 519 



Of an Amphibology of the Fourth kind. 
J'ai envoy e les lettres que j'ai ecrites a la poste. 

A la poste, thus placed, is equivocal, because we 
do not know whether it is meant that the letters 
have been written at the post-office, or sent to the 
post-office. 



OF GALLICISMS. 

In the Grammaire Philosophique et Litteraire, 
four sorts of gallicisms have been distinguished ; we 
shall only mention here those of construction. 

The gallicisms of construction are, in general, 
irregularities and deviations from the customary 
rules of syntax; there are some, however, which 
are mere ellipses, and others which can only be 
attributed to the unaccountable whims of usage. 

General Principle. — Every gallicism of construc- 
tion which obscures the meaning of the sentence, 
ought to be proscribed. We are only to preserve 
those which do not lessen its perspicuity by the 
irregularity of the construction, and which are, at 
the same time, sanctioned by long practice. 

According to this principle, we now reject this 
elliptic gallicism, et quainsi ne soit, meaning ce que 
je vous dis est si vrai que, because it obscured the 
sentence, although it was sanctioned by usage. 
For instance, fetais dans ce jar din, et qu'ainsi ne 
soit, voila une jieur quefai cueillie, that is ? et pour 
preave de cela, voila line flair, etc., which it is not 
easy to apprehend ; for this reason, Moliere and 
La Fontaine are, at least we think so, the last great 
writers that have used this expression. 

One of the most common gallicisms is that in 



520 OF GALLICISMS. 

which we introduce the impersonal verb ily a, used 
for il est, il existe. These expressions, il y avait une 
*ois un roi. il y a cent a parier contre un, are gal- 
licisms. There are two in the following one : il riy 
a pas jusquaux enfans qui ne sen melent, even 
children will meddle with it (will do it). 

These sentences, il nest rien moins que genereux, 
he is far from being generous ; vous avez beau dire, 
you may say what you please, but, etc. ; a ce quil 
me semble, by what I can see, as the matter appears 
to me, etc. ; nous voila a nous lamenter, we began 
to lament, here we are lamenting, crying, etc. ; 
quest-ce que de nous ! what wretched beings we 
are ! etc., are also gallicisms. 

The use which we make of the preposition en in 
many sentences, is still another source of gallicisms ; 
some of this kind will be found in the following 
expressions, a qui en avez-vous ? whom are you 
angry at ? ou en veut-il venir ? what does he aim at ? 
what would he be at ? what does he mean? il lid en 
veut, he owes him a spite, a grudge, etc. The pre- 
position en changes also sometimes, the signification 
of verbs, and then gives rise to gallicisms. 

The conjunction que produces as great a number 
of gallicisms, as dest une terrible jjassion que lejeu, 
gaming is a terrible passion ; c'est done en vain que 
je travaille, it is in vain then that I work: ce n'est 
was trop que cela, that is not too much, it is not too 
much ; so, il nest que d avoir du courage, there is 
nothing like having some courage. 

Many others will be found in the use which we 
make of the prepositions a, de, dans, apres, etc., but 
we have said enough on this subject. 

Gallicisms are of very great use in the simple 
style, therefore La Fontaine and Madame de Sevigne 
abound in them. The middling style has not so 



OF GALLICISMS. 521 

many, and we find but few in the solemn oratorical 
style, and these even of a peculiar nature. We shall 
here insert two examples of gallicism in the sub- 
lime, both taken from the tragedy of Iphigenia, by 
Racine : 

Avez-vous pu penser qu'au sang d' Agamemnon 
Achille preferat une fille sans nom ? 
Qui de tout son destin ce qu'elle a pu comprendre, 
C'est qu'elle sort d'un sang, etc. 

and 

Je ne sais qui m'arrete et retient mon courroux, 
Que par un prompt avis de tour ce qui se passe 
Je ne coure des dieux divulguer la menace. 

In the first sentence, qui is in subject, though 
without a verb relative; and in the second, je ne 
sais qui rriarrete que je ne coure, is contrary to the 
rules of common construction. " But," says 
Vaugelas, "those extraordinary phrases, far from 
being vicious, possess so much the more graceful- 
ness, as they are more peculiar to each language/' 



522 



FREE EXERCISES. 



MADAME DE MAINTENON TO HER BROTHER. 

We can only be 1 unhappy by our own fault ; this shall always 
be my text, and my reply to your lamentation. Recollect 2, my dear 
brother, the voyage of America, the misfortunes of our father, of 
our infancy, and our youth 3 ; and you will bless Providence instead 
of murmuring against fortune. Ten years ago, we were both very 
far (below our present situation 4), and our hopes were so feeble 5, 
that we limited our wishes to a (revenue of three thousand livres 6.) 
At present, we have four times that sum 7, and our desires are not 
yet satisfied ! We enjoy that happy mediocrity which you have so 
often extolled 8 ; let us be content. If possessions 9 come to us, 
let us receive them from the hand of God, but let not our views be 
10 extravagant 11. We have (every thing necessary) 12 and com- 
fortable 13 ; all the rest is avarice 14 ; all these desires of greatness 
spring from 15 a restless heart. Your debts are all paid, and you 
may live elegantly 16 without contracting more 17. What have you 
to desire? Must 18 schemes 19 of wealth and ambition occasion 20 
the loss of your repose and your health ? Read the life of St. Louis ; 
you will see how unequal 21 the greatness of this world is to the 
desires of the human heart; God only can satisfy them 22. I 
repeat it, you are only unhappy by your own fault. Your uneasiness 
23 destroys your health, which you ought, to preserve, if it were 24 
only because I love you. Watch 25 your temper 26; if you can 
render it less splenetic 27 and less gloomy, (you will have gained a 



1. On ne etre..que. 2. Songer a. 3 The misfortunes of our infancy and those 
of our, etc. 4. Du point ou nous sommes aujourd'hui. 5. Si peu de chose. 
6. Trois mille livres de rente, 7. That sum, en.. plus. 8. Have so often ex- 
tolled, vanter si fort, ind.-2. 9. Posssesions, Mens. 10. Let us not have views. 
11. Trop vaste. 12. Le necessaire. 13. Le commode. 14. Avarice, cupidite. 
15. Spring from, partir du vide de. 16. Delicieusement. 17. Contracting more, 
en faire de nouvelles. 18. Must, faut-il que. 19. Projet. 20. Occasion, coilter, 
suhj.-l. 21. Unequal, au-dessous de. 22. Satisfy them, le rassasier. 23. Unea- 
siness, inquietude, pi. 24. If it were, quand ce etre, cond.-l. 25. Travailler sur. 



FREE EXERCISES. 523 

great advantage) 28. This is not the work of reflection only; 
exercise, amusement, and a regulated life, (are necessary for the 
purpose 29). You cannot think well (whilst your health is affected 
30); when the body is debilitated 31, the mind is without vigour. 
Adieu ! write to me more frequently and in a style less gloomy. 

26. Humeur. 27. Bilieux. 28. Ce etre un grand point de gagne. 29. II y faut 
de. 30. Tant que vous se porter mal. 31. Debilitated, dans Vabattement. 



II. 

THE CONVERT. 

AN EASTERN TALE. 

Divine Mercy 1 had brought a vicious man into a society of sages, 
whose morals were holy and pure. He was touched by their virtues, 
it was not long 2 before 3 he imitated them and lost his old habits ; 
he became just, sober, patient, laborious, and beneficent. His deeds 
nobody could deny, but they were attributed 4 to odious motives. 
They praised his good actions without loving his person ; they would 
always judge him by what he had been, not by what he was become. 
This injustice penetrated him with grief; he shed tears into the 
bosom of an ancient sage, more just and more humane than the 
others. " O my son," said the old man to him, " thou art better 
than thy reputation ; be thankful to God for it. Happy the man 
who can say, my enemies and my rivals censure in me vices of which 
I am not guilty. What matters 5 it, if thou art good, that men 
pursue thee as wicked ? Hast thou not to comfort thee, the two best 
witnesses of thy actions, God and thy conscience." 

Saint- Lambert. 

1. Misericorde. 2. Ne pas tarder. 3. A inf.-l. 4. On donner des motifs. 
5. Importer. 



Mr. de Montausier has written a letter to Monseigneur upon the 
taking of Bhilipsbourg, which very much pleases me. * ; Monseig- 
neur, I do not compliment you upon the capture of Philipsbourg ; 
you had a good army, bombs, cannon, and Vauban ; neither shall I 
compliment you upon your valour, for that is an hereditary virtue in 
your family ; but I rejoice that you are liberal, generous, humane, 
and that you know how to recompense the services of those who 
behave well ; it is for this that I congratulate you.'* 

SiviGNE. 



524 FREE EXERCISES 

III. 

THE GOOD MINISTER. 

AN EASTERN FABLE. 



The gxeat Aaron Raschild began to suspect that his vizir Giaf'ar 
was not deserving of the confidence which he had reposed in him. 
The women of Aaron, the inhabitants of Bagdad, the courtiers, the 
dervishes, were censuring the vizir with bitterness. The Calif loved 
Giafar ; he would not condemn him upon the clamours of the city 
and the court ; he visited his empire ; every where he saw the land 
well cultivated, the country smiling, the cottages opulent, the useful 
arts honoured, and youth full of gaiety. He visited his fortified 
cities and sea-ports ; he saw numerous ships, which threatened the 
coasts of Africa and of Asia; he saw warriors disciplined and 
content ; these warriors, the seamen, and the country people ex- 
claimed : " O God, pour thy blessings upon the faithful, by giving 
them a calif like Aaron, and a vizir like Giafar." The Calif, affected 
by these exclamations, enters a mosque, falls upon his knees, and 
cries out : " Great God, I return thee thanks ; thou hast given 
me a vizir of whom my courtiers speak ill, and my people speak 
well." 

Saint- Lam bert. 



Providence conducts us with so much goodness through the dif- 
ferent periods of our life, that we (do not perceive our progress). 1 
This loss comes on easily 2, it is imperceptible, it is the shadow of 
the sun-dial whose motion we do not see. If, at twenty years of 
age, we could see 3 in a mirror the face we shall have at three-score, 
we (should be shocked at the contrast), 4 and terrified at our own 
figure ; but it is day by day that we advance; we are to-day as we 
were yesterday, and shall be to-morrow as we are to-day ; so we go 
on without feeling it, and this is a miracle of that Providence w r hich 
I adore. 

Sevigne, 

1. Ne le sentir quasi pas. 2. Doucement. 3. On nous faire voir. 4. Tomber 
a la renverse 



FREE EXERCISES. 525 

IV. 

THE xMAGNIFICENT PROSPECT. 

This beautiful house was on the declivity of a hill, from whence 
one beheld the sea, sometimes clear and smooth as glass, sometimes 
idly 1 irritated against the rocks on which it broke, bellowing 2 and 
swelling its waves like mountains. From another side was seen a 
river, in which were islands bordered with blooming limes and lofty 
poplars, which raised their haughty heads even to the clouds* The 
several channels which formed those islands, seemed sporting 3 in 
the plain. Some rolled their limpid waters with rapidity ; some had 
a peaceful and sleepy stream ; others, by long windings, ran back 
again to re-ascend as it were to their source, and seemed not to have 
power to leave these enchanting borders. At a distance were seen 
hills and mountains, which lost themselves in the clouds, and formed 
by their fantastic figure, as delightful a horizon (as the eye could 
wish to behold 4). The neighbouring mountains were covered with 
verdant (vine branches 5) hanging in festoons : the grapes, brighter 
than purple, could not conceal themselves under the leaves, and the 
vine 6 was overloaded with its fruit. The fig, the olive, the pome- 
granate, and all other trees, overspread the plain, and made it a 
large garden. 

Fenelon. 



Long hopes wear out 7 joy, as long maladies wear out grief. 
All philosophic systems are good only when one (has no use 8) 
for them. Sevigne. 

1. Follement. 2. En gemir. 3. Se jouer. 4. A souhait pour le plaisir de. 
5. Pampre, m. 6. Vigne, f. 7. User. 8. N'en avoir que faire. 



V. 

A GENERAL VIEW OF NATURE. 

With what magnificence does nature shine 1 upon earth ! A pure 
light, extending from east to west, gilds successively the two hemis- 
pheres of this globe ; an element transparent and light, surrounds 
it ; a gentle fecundating heat animates, gives being 2 to the seeds 
of life ; salubrious spring waters contribute to their preservation 
and growth ; (rising ground 3) distributed in the lands, stop the 
vapours of the air, make these springs inexhaustible and always new ; 



526 FREE EXERCISES. 

immense cavities made to receive them divide the continents. The 
extent of the sea is as great as that of the earth ; it is not a cold, 
barren element ; it is a new empire as rich, as populous as the first. 
The finger of God has marked their boundaries. 

The earth, rising above the level of the sea, is secure 4 from its 
irruptions ; its surface, enamelled with flowers, adorned with a 
verdure constantly renewed, peopled with thousands and thousands 
of species of different animals, is a place of rest, a delightful abode, 
where man placed in order to second nature, presides over all 
beings. The only one among all, capable of knowing and worthy of 
admiring, God has made him spectator of the universe, and a witness 
of his wonders. The divine spark with which he is animated, makes 
him participate in the divine mysteries ; it is by this light that he 
thinks and reflects ; by it he sees and reads in the book of the 
universe, as in a copy of the Deity. 

Nature is the exterior throne of divine magnificence ; the man 
who contemplates, who studies it, rises by degrees to the interior 
throne of Omnipotence. Made to adore the Creator, he commands 
all creatures ; vassal of Heaven, king of the earth, he ennobles, 
peoples, enriches it ; he establishes among the living beings order, 
subordination, harmony; he embellishes nature herself; he culti- 
vates, extends, and polishes it ; lops off the thistle and the briar, 
and multiplies the grape and the rose. 

BUFFON. 

1. Ne briller pas. 2. Faire eel ore. 3. Imminences. 4. A l'abri de. 



VI. 

ANOTHER GENERAL VIEW OF NATURE. 

Trees, shrubs, and plants are the ornaments and clothing 1 of the 
earth. Nothing is so melancholy 2 as the prospect of a country 
naked and bare 3, exhibiting to the eyes nothing but stones, mud, 
and sand : but, vivified by nature, and clad 4 in its nuptial robe, 
amidst the course of waters and the singing of birds, the earth pre- 
sents to man, in the harmony of the three kingdoms, a spectacle 
full of life, interest, and charms, the only spectacle in the world of 
w T hich his eyes and heart are never weary. 5 

The more a contemplative man's soul is fraught with sensibility 6, 
the more he yields to the ecstacies which this harmony produces in 
him. A soft and deep melancholy then takes possession of his 
senses, and, in an ebriety of delights, he loses himself in the immen- 
sity of that beautiful system, with which he feels himself identified. 



FREE EXERCISES. 527 

Then, every particular object escapes him, he sees and feels nothing 
but in the whole. Some particular circumstance must contract his 
idea and circumscribe his imagination, before 7 he can observe by 
parcels that universe which he was endeavouring to embrace. 

J. J. Rousseau. 

1. Vetement. 2. Triste. 3. Pele. 4. Revetu. 5. Se lasser. 6. Contempla- 
teur avoir Tame sensible 7. Pour qu'il. 



VII. 

CULTIVATED NATURE. 

How beautiful is that cultivated nature ! How, through the cares 
of man, it is brilliant and pompously adorned ! He himself is its 
chief ornament — its noblest production ; by multiplying himself he 
multiplies the most precious germ ; she also seems to multiply 
herself with him ; by his art he (brings forth to light 1) all that she 
concealed 2 in her bosom. How many unknown treasures ! how 
many new riches ! flowers, fruits, seeds brought to perfection, mul- 
tiplied to infinity ; the useful species of animals transported, pro- 
pagated, increased without number ; the noxious species reduced, 
confined, banished ; gold, and iron more necessary than gold, 
extracted from the bowels of the earth ; torrents confined 3, rivers 
directed, contracted 4; the sea itself subjected, surveyed 5, crossed 
from one hemisphere to the other ; the earth accessible in every 
part, and every where rendered as lively as fruitful ; in the vallies, 
delightful meadows ; in the plains, rich pastures and still richer 
harvests ; hills covered with vines and fruits, their summits covered 
with useful trees and young forests ; deserts changed into cities 
inhabited by an immense people, which continually circulating, 
spreads itself from those centres to the extremities ; roads opened 
and frequented, communications established every where as so many 
witnesses of the strength and union of society ; a thousand other 
monuments of power and glory sufficiently demonstrate that man, 
possessing dominion over the earth, has changed, renewed the whole 
of its surface ; and that, at all times, he shares the empire with 
nature. 

1. Mettre au jour. 2. Receler. 3. Contenu. 4. Resserre. 5. Reconnu. 



528 FREE EXERCISES. 



VIII. 



THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. 

Nevertheless, man only reigns by right of conquest ; he rather 
enjoys than possesses, and he can preserve but by dint of cares con- 
tinually renewed. If they cease, every thing droops, every thing 
alters, every thing changes and again returns 1 under the hand of 
nature ; she re-assumes her rights, erases the work of man, covers 
with dust and moss his most pompous monuments, destroys them in 
time, and leaves him nothing but the regret of having lost, through 
his fault, what his ancestors had conquered by their labours. Those 
times, in which man loses his dominion, those barbarous 2 ages 
during which every thing is seen to perish, are always prepared by 
war, and accompanied by scarcity and depopulation. Man, who can 
do nothing but by number, who is strong only by reunion, who can 
be happy but by peace, is mad enough to arm himself for his mis- 
fortune, and to fight for his ruin. Impelled by insatiable avidity, 
blinded by ambition still more insatiable, he renounces all feelings of 
humanity, turns all his strength against himself, seeks for mutual 
destruction, actually 3 destroys himself; and, after those days of 
blood and carnage, when the smoke of glory has vanished, he con- 
templates, with a sad look, the earth wasted, the arts buried, the 
nations dispersed, the people weakened, his own happiness ruined, 
and his real power annihilated. 

Buffon. 

1. Rentrer. 2. De barbarie. 3. En effet. 



IX. 

INVOCATION TO THE GOD OF NATURE. 

Almighty God, whose presence alone supports nature, and main 
tains the harmony of the laws of the universe ; Thou, who from the 
immovable throne of the empyrean, seest the celestial spheres roll 
under thy feet, without shock and without confusion ; who, from the 
bosom of repose, reproducest every moment their immense move- 
ments, and alone governest in profound peace, that infinite number 
of heavens and worlds, restore, restore at length, tranquillity to the 
agitated earth ! let it be silent at thy voice ; let discord and war 
cease the sound of their proud clamours! God of goodness, author 
of all beings, thy paternal looks take in 1 all the objects of the 
creation; but man is thy chosen being; thou h*ast enlivened 2 his 
soul with a ray of thy immortal light ; complete the measure of thy 



FREE EXERCISES* 529 

kindness, by penetrating his heart with a ray of thy love ; this divine 
sentiment, diffusing itself every where, will reconcile opposite 
natures ; man will no longer dread the sight of man ; his hand will 
no longer wield the murderous steel 3 ; the devouring fire of war 
will no longer dry up 4 the source of generations ; the human 
species now weakened, mutilated, mowed down in the blossom, will 
spring anew 5 and multiply without number ; nature, overwhelmed 
under the weight of scourges 6, will soon re-assume, with a new life, 
its former fruitfulness ; and we, beneficent God, will second it, we 
will cultivate it, we will contemplate it incessantly, that we may 
every moment offer thee anew tribute of gratitude and admiration. 

Buffon. 

1. Embrasser. 2. Eclairer. 3. Le fer. .armer sa main. 4. Tarir. 5. Germer 
de nouveau. 6. Fleau. 



X. 

Happy they who are disgusted with 1 violent pleasures, and know 
how to be contented 2 with the sweets of an innocent life ! Happy 
they who delight in being instructed 3, and who take a pleasure 4 in 
cultivating their minds with knowledge ! On whatever part adverse 
fortune may throw them, they always carry entertainment with them, 
and the disquiet which preys upon others, even in the midst of 
pleasure, is unknown to those who can employ themselves in reading. 
Happy they who love to read, and are not like me deprived of it. 
As these thoughts were revolving in my mind, I went into a gloomy 
forest, where I immediately perceived an old man holding a book in 
his hand. The forehead of this old man was large, bald, and a little 
wrinkled; a white beard hung down to his girdle ; his stature was 
tall and majestic, his complexion still fresh and ruddy, his eyes lively 
and piercing, his voice sweet, his words plain and charming. I never 
saw so venerable an old man. He was a priest of Apollo, and offi- 
ciated 5 in a marble temple, which the kings of Egypt had dedicated 
to that god in this forest. The book which he held in his hand was 
a collection of hymns in honour of the gods. He accosts me in a 
friendly manner, and we discourse together. He related things past 
so w r ell that they seemed present, and yet with such brevity that his 
accounts never tired me. He foresaw the future by his profound 
knowledge, which made him know men, and the designs of which 
they are capable. With all this wisdom he was cheerful and com- 
plaisant, and the sprightliest youth has not so many graces as this 
man had in so advanced an age ; he accordingly loved young men 
when they were tractable 6, and had a relish for application and 
virtue. Fenelon. 

1. Se degouter de. 2. Se contenter de. 3. S'instruire. 4. Se plaire. 5. Servir. 
6. Docile, 

2a 



530 FREE EXERCISES. 

XL 
THOUGHTS ON POETRY. 

Wherever I went, I found that poetry was considered as the 
highest learning 1, and regarded 2 with a veneration somewhat ap- 
proaching to that which man would pay to angelic nature. 

It yet fills me with wonder that, in almost all countries, the most 
ancient poets are considered as the best ; whether it be that every 
other kind of knowledge is an acquisition gradually attained, and 
poetry is a gift conferred at once : or that the first poetry of every 
nation surprised them as a novelty, and retained the credit by con- 
sent, which it received by accident at first; or whether, as the 
province 3 of poetry is to describe nature and passion, which are 
always the same, the first writers took possession of the most striking 
objects for description, and the most probable occurrences for 
fiction, and left nothing to those that followed them, but transcription 
4 of the same events, and new combinations 5 of the same images. 
Whatever be the reason, it is commonly observed that the early 
writers are in possession of nature, and their followers of art ; that 
the first excel in strength and invention, and the latter in elegance 
and refinement. 

I was desirous to add my name to this illustrious fraternity. I 
read all the poets of Persia and Arabia, and was able to repeat by 
memory the volumes that are suspended in the mosque of Mecca. 
But I soon found that no man was ever great by imitation. My 
desire of excellence impelled me to transfer my attention to nature and 
to life. Nature was to be my subject, and men to be my auditors ; 
I could never describe what I had not seen ; I could not hope to 
move those with delight or terror 6 whose interests and opinions I 
did not understand. 



XII. 

THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. 

Being now resolved to be a poet, I saw every thing with a new 
purpose; my sphere of attention was suddenly magnified ; no kind 
of knowledge was to be overlooked. I ranged mountains and 
deserts for images and resemblances 7, and pictured upon my mind 
every tree of the forest and flower of the valley. I observed with 

1. Part of literature. 2. Was looked upon as a kind of heavenly emanation. 
3. The aim. 4. But to copy. 5. And to make new combinations. 6. To awake 
delight or terror in those, whose, etc. 7. To gather images and resemblances. 



FREE EXERCISES. 331 

equal care the crags of the rock and the pinnacles of the palace. 
Sometimes, I wandered along the mazes of the rivulet, and some- 
times, watched the changes of the summer clouds. To a poet 
nothing can be useless. Whatever is beautiful, and whatever is 
dreadful, must be familiar to his imagination: he must be con- 
versant 8 with all that is awfully vast or elegantly little. The plants 
of the garden, the animals of the wood, the minerals of the earth, 
and the meteors of the sky, must all concur to store his mind with 
inexhaustible variety ; for every idea is useful for the enforcement 
or decoration 9 of moral or religious truth, and he who knows most 
will have most power of diversifying his scenes, and gratifying his 
reader with remote allusions and unexpected instruction. 

All the appearances of nature, I was, therefore, careful to study 10, 
and every country which I have surveyed has contributed something 
to my poetical powers. 

In so wide a survey, interrupted the prince, you must surely have 
left much unobserved. I have lived, till now, within the circuit of 
these mountains, and yet cannot walk abroad without the sight of 
something which I had never beheld before or never heeded. 



XIII. 

THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. 

The business of a poet, said Imlac, is to examine, not the indi- 
vidual, but the species : to remark general properties and large ap- 
pearances 11 ; he does not number the streaks of the tulip, or describe 
the different shades in the verdure of the forest. He is to exhibit 
in his portraits of nature, such prominent and striking features ]2, 
as recal the original to every mind, and must neglect the minuter 
discriminations 13, which one may have remarked and another neg- 
lected, for those characteristics 14 which are alike obvious to vigi- 
lance and carelessness. 

But the knowledge of nature is only half the task of a poet ; he 
must be acquainted likewise with all the modes of life 15. His 
character requires that he estimate the happiness and misery of every 
condition : observe the power of all the passions, in all their com- 
binations, and trace the changes of the human mind, as they are 
modified by various institutions and accidental influences of climate 
or custom, from the sprightliness of infancy to the despondence of 
decrepitude. He must divest himself of the prejudices of his age or 
country; he must consider right and wrong in their abstracted and 

8. He must observe. 9. To enforce, or set off the moral, etc. 10. I was studying 
with care all the, etc. 11. And appearances at large. 12. Of those features pro- 
minent and striking, which, etc. 13. These small differences. 14. And to apply 
himsell to characterise, etc. 15. All the different aspects of human life, etc. 



532 FREE EXERCISES. 

invariable state ; he must disregard present laws and opinions, and 
rise to general and transcendant truths, which will always be the 
same ; he must, therefore, content himself with the slow progress of 
his name, contemn the applause of his own time, and commit his 
claims to the justice of posterity. He must write as the interpreter 
of nature, and the legislator of mankind, and consider himself as 
presiding over the thoughts and manners of future generations, as a 
being superior to time and place. 

His labour is not yet at an end ; he must know many languages 
and many sciences ; and, that his style may be worthy of his thoughts, 
must, by incessant practice, familiarise to himself every delicacy of 
speech and grace ol harmony. 

S. Johnson. 



XIV. 

Observation. 

As it is chiefly in poetry that the English lan- 
guage differs from the French, we now propose 
showing to the English learner how he is to proceed 
in order to transport into the French tongue the 
beauties of his poets. At the bottom of the page 
will be found the decomposition of the sentences, 
accommodated to the genius of the French, so as 
nearly to point out the very expressions to be made 
use of in the translation. To look for elegance, 
perhaps even for grammatical precision, would be 
useless ; we never intended it. 

First follow nature, and your judgment frame 

By her just standard, which is still the same; 

Unerring nature still divinely bright, 

One clear, unchang'd, and universal light, 

Life, force, and beauty, must to all impart ; I 

At once the source, and end, and test of art. 2 

Art, from that fund, each just supply provides : 

Works without show, and without pomp presides ; 

1. Light clear, immutable and universal nature, which never errs, and shines 
always with a divine splendour, must impart to all she does, life, force, and 
beauty. 

2. She is at once the source, etc. 



FREE EXERCISES. 533 

In some fair body thus th'informing soul 

With spirit feeds, with vigour fills the whole. 

Each motion guides; and every nerve sustains ; 

Itself unseen, but in th'effect remains. 3 

Some, to whom heav'n in wit has been profuse, 

Want as much more to turn it to its use : 

For wit and judgment often are at strife, 

Tho' meant each others aid, like man and wife. 4 

*Tis more to guide, than spur the muse's steed ; 

Restrain his fury, than provoke his speed. 5 

The winged courser, like a gen'rous horse, 

Shows most true mettle, when you check its course: G 

Pope. 

3. So, in a fair body, unseen itself, but always sensible by its effects, the soul 
continually acting, feeds the whole with spirits, fills it with vigour, guides every 
motion of it, and sustains every nerve. 

4. Some to whom heaven has given wit with profusion, want as much yet t*. 
know the use they ought to make of it ; for wit and judgment, though made, like 
man and wife, to aid each other, are often in opposition. 

5. #It is more difficult to guide than spur the courser of the muses, and to 
restrain its ardour than provoke its impetuosity. 

6. The winged courser is like a generous horse ; the more we try to stop it in 
its rapid course, the more it shows unconquersbte vigour. 



534 



EXAMPLES OF PHRASES 



SOxME DIFFICULTIES OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



De Phrases dans lesquelles on 
doit faire usage de Particle. 

L'homme est sujet a bien des vicis- 
situdes, See R. I, p. 400* 
Les honimes d'un vrai genie sont 

rares. lb. 
Les hommes a imagination sont 

rarement heureux. lb. 
L'homme dont vous parlez est un 

de mes amis. lb. 
La vie est un melange de biens ei de 

maux. lb. 
La perfection en tout genre est le 

but auquel on doit tendre. lb. 
La beaute, les graces, et l'esprit, 

sont des avantages bien precieux 

quand Us sont releves par la mo- 

destie. G, R. I and II, pp. 398 

and 399 
Voila des tableaux d'une grande 

beaute. R. II, p. 401 
Faites-vous des principes dont vous 

ne vous ecartiez jamais. lb. 
Cet arbre porte des fruits exceltens. 

lb. 
Ces raisons sont des conjectures 

bienfaibles. lb. 
Servez-vous des termes etablis par 

r usage. lb. 
On doit eviter lair de 1'arTectation. 

lb. 
Le Jupiter de Phidias etait oVune 

grande beaute. R. Ill, p. 408 



Of Phrases in which the Article 
is used, 

Man is liable to a variety of 

changes 
Men of real genius are scarce 

Men of chimerical fancy are sel- 
dom happy 

The man you speak of is a friend 
of mine 

Life is a compound of good and 
evil 

Perfection in every thing ought 
to be our object 

Beauty, gracefulness, and wit, are 
valuable endowments when 
adorned by modesty 



These are very beautiful pictures 

Establish rules for yourself and 
never deviate from them 

This tree bears very excellent 
fruit 

These reasons are very idle con- 
jectures 

Use the expressions established 
by custom 

We ought to avoid the appearance 
of affectation 

The Jupiter of Phidias was ex- 
tremely beautiful 



* In these phrases, the letter R. at the end signifies Rule ; G. R., General 
Rule; Obs., Observation; Ex., Exception; Sect Section. 



EXAMPLES OF PHRASES. 



535 



II. 

Continuation des m ernes Phrases. 

La memoire est le tresor de l'esprit, 
le fruit de l'attention, et de la 
reflexion. R. II, p. 401 

J'achetai hier des gravures pre- 
cieuses et rares. lb. 

La France est le -plus beau pays de 
V Europe. R. Ill, p. 403 

L'interet de PAllemagne etait op. 
pose a celui de la Russie. lb. 

La longueur de l'Angleterre du 
nord au sud est de 360 miles, et 
en largeur de Vest a I'ouest est de 
300. lb. 

// arrive de la Chine, du Japon, et 
des Indes Orientales, etc. lb. 

77 arrive de l'Amerique, de la Bar- 
bade, de la Jamaique, etc. lb. 

11 vient de la Flandre Franchise, 
lb. 

II s" est etabli dans la province de 
Middlesex. lb. 

Des petits-maitres sont des etres 
insupportables dans la societe. 
Obs. upon R. II, p. 402 

Cest Vopinion des nouveaux phi- 
losophies. Obs. upon R. I, 
p. 400 

Elle a bien de la grace dans tout 
ce qu'ellefait. Ex. upon R. II, 
p. 402 

Cette etoffe se vend une guinee 
l'aune. Sect. 3, p. 328 

Ce vin coute 70 livres sterlings la 
piece, lb. 



II. 

The same Phrases continued. 

Memory is the treasure of the 
mind, the result of attention 
and reflexion 

I yesterday bought some valuable 
and scarce engravings 

France is the finest country in 
Europe 

The German interest was con- 
trary to the Russian 

The length of England from 
north to south is 300 miles, and 
its breadth from east to west 
is 300 

He comes from China, Japan, and 
the East Indies, etc. 

He comes from America, Bar- 
badoes, Jamaica, etc. 

He comes from French Flanders 

He has fixed himself in the 
county of Middlesex 

Coxcombs are unsufferable be- 
ings in society 

It is the opinion of the new phi- 
losophers 

She does every thing most grace- 
fully 

This stuff sells at a guinea the 

ell 
This wine costs seventy pounds 

the hogshead 



III. 

De Phrases dans lesquelles on ne 
doit pas faire usage de l'article. 

Nos connaissances doivent etre tirees 
de principes evidens. R. II, 
p. 401 

Cet arbre porte d'excellens fruits, 
lb. 



III. 

Of Phrases in which the Article is 
omitted. 

Our knowledge ought to be de- 
rived from evident principles 



This tree produces 
fruit 



excellent 



536 



EXAMPLES OF PHRASES 



Ces raisons sont de faibles con- 
jectures. R. II, p. 401 

Eoitez tout ce qui a un air d 'affec- 
tation. R. I, p. 405 

Ces exemples peuvent servir de 
modeles. lb. 

11 a une grande presence d'esprit. 

Ib *. 
La memoire de raison et d'esprit 

est plus utile que les autres sortes 

de memoire. lb. 
Peu de persormes reflechissent sur 

la rapidite de la vie. R. II, 

p. 401 
Que d'evenemens inconcevables se 

sont succedes les uns aux autres. 

lb. 
H y a plus d'esprit mais moins de 

connaissances dans ce sidcle que 

dans le siecle dernier. lb. 
On ne vit jamais autant d'effron- 

terie. lb. 
Jepris hier beaucoup de peine pour 

rien. lb. 
Can die est une des ties les plus agr en- 
ables de la Mediterranee~ Ex. 

p. 404 
II arrive de Perse, eHtalie, d'Es- 

pagne, etc. lb. 
II est revenu de Suisse, d'Alle- 

magne, etc. lb. 
Les vins de Fronce,seront chers ceite 

annee ; les vignes ont coule. lb. 

V empire d'Allemagne est compose 
de grands et de petits etats. lb. 

Les chevaux cPAngleterre sont ex- 
cellens. lb. 

Apres mon depart de Suisse, je me 
retirai a Rome. lb. 

IV. 

Continuation des memes Phrases. 

Vo2(s trouverez ce passage page 
] 20, livre premier, chapitre dix. 
R. I, pp. 405 and 406 

// s'est r^ire en Angleterre. lb. 



These reasons are idle conjee- 
tures 

Avoid whatever bears the ap- 
pearance of affectation 

These examples may serve as 
models 

He has great presence of mind 

The memory of reason and the 
mind is more useful than any 
other kind of memory 

Few people reflect on the rapidity 
of life 

How many inconceivable events 
have followed in succession 

There is more wit, but less know- 
ledge in this age than in the 
last 

So much assurance never was 
met with 

I took a great deal of trouble 
yesterday about nothing 

Candia is one of the most agree- 
able islands in the Mediter- 
ranean 

He comes from Persia, Italy, 
Spain, etc. 

He is returned from Switzerland, 
Germany, etc. 

French wines will be dear this 
year: the vines have been 
blasted 

The German empire is composed 
of great and small states 

The English horses are excellent 

After leaving Switzerland. I re- 
tired to Rome. 

IV. 

Continuation of the same Phrases. 

You will find this passage in page 
120, first book, chapter tenth 

He has retired to England 



ON SOME DIFFICULTIES.. 



537 



21 vit dans sa retraite en vrai phi- 
losophy R. I, pp. 405 and 406 

Quand il reflechit sur sa conduite, 
il en eut honte. lb. 

Qest un homme qui cherche fortune, 
lb. 

Il entend malice a tout. lb. 

Ne portez en vie a personne. lb. 

Si vous promettezy tenez parole. 
lb. 

Dans les affaires importantes ne 
vous decidez jamais sans prendre 
conseil. lb. 

Courage, soldats, tenons fermes ; 
la victoire est a nous. lb. 

Cette femme n'a ni grace ni beaute. 
lb. 

Monseigneur le due de, etc., prince 
du sang, alia hier a la campagne. 

Montr e taut defaiblesse, e'est n'etre 
pas homme. lb. 

Cet homme est une espece de misan- 
thrope dant les brusqueries sont 
quelquefois tres-plaisa?ites 

U ananas est une sortede fruit tres- 
commun aux Antilles. lb. 

Cest un genre de vie qui ne me 
plait point. lb. 



He lives in his retreat like a real 

philosopher 
When he reflected on his conduct, 

he was ashamed of it 
He is a man that seeks to make 

a fortune 
He puts a malicious construction 

on every thing 
' Envy nobody 
If you promise, keep to your 

word 
In matters of consequence never 

decide without advice 
Cheer up, soldiers, let us continue 

firm ; the day is our own 
This woman is destitute both of 

grace and beauty 
The duke of, etc., a prince of the 

blood, went yesterday to the 

country 
To show so much weakness is not 

acting like a man 
This man is a kind of misanthro- 
pist whose oddities are some- 
times comical 
The pine-apple is a kind of fruit 

very common in the Antilles 
It is a style of life that is not 

agreeable to me 



V. V. 

Continuation des memes Phrases. The same Sentences continued. 



Cette dame plait a tout le monde par- 
son honneteteets a douceur. R. II, 
p. 407 

Tout homme a des defauts plus ou 
moins sensibles. lb. 

Cette conduite augmentait, chaque 
jour, le nombre de ses amis. lb. 

Tous les biens nous viennent de 
Dieu, lb. 

Venus etait la deesse de la beaute, 
etla mere de V amour et des graces. 
R. Ill, p. 408 

Selon les pa'iens, Jupiter etait le 
premier des Dieux lb. 



This lady pleases every one by 
her good breeding and mildness 

Every man has defects more or 

less obvious 
This behaviour daily increased 

the number of his friends 
Every blessing comes from God 

Venus was the goddess of beauty 
and the mother of love and the 
graces 

According to the heathens, Ju- 
piter was the first of the gods 



538 



EXAMPLES OF PHRASES 



Apollon etait frere jumeau de 

Diane. R. Ill, p. 408 
Rubens a ete un grand peintre. lb. 
Homere et Virgile sont les deux 

plus grands poetes epiques. lb. 
Londres est la plus belle ville que 

je connaisse. lb. 
L'eau de riviere est douce, et Veau 

de mer est salee. lb. 
Oest un excellent poisson de mer. 

Ib ; 
Voila une superbe table de marbre. 

lb. 
L'eau de Seine est celle qu'on pre- 

fire a Paris. lb. 
Pauvrete rCest pas vice. lb. 
Citoyens, etrangers, grands, peu- 

ples, se sont montres sensibles a 

cetteperte. lb 



Apollo was twin brother to Diana 

Rubens was a great painter 
Homer and Virgil are the two 

greatest epic poets 
London is the finest city that I 

know 
River water is soft and sea water 

is salt 
It is an excellent sea fish 

There is a superb marble table 

The water of the Seine is pre- 
ferred at Paris 

Poverty is not a vice 

Citizens, strangers, grandees, 
people, have shown themselves 
sensible of this loss 



VI. 



VI. 



De Phrases sur le Pronoun Le. Of Phrases upon the Pronoun Le. 



Est-ce la voire opinion? ne dou- 

tez point que ce ne la soit. Sect. 

Ill, p. 429 
Sont-ce la vos domestiques? oui 

ce les sont. lb. 
Mesdames, etes-vous les etrangeres 

qu'on nCa annoncees ? oui, nous 

les sommes. lb. 
Madame, etes-vous la malade pour 

laquelle on nCa appele? oui, je 

la suis. lb. 
Madame, etes-vous la mere de cet 

enfant ? oui, je la suis. lb. 
Mesdames, etes-vous contentes de 

cette musique? oui, nous le 

sommes. lb. 
Pile est malheureuse, et je crains 

Men qu'elle ne le soit toute la vie. 

lb. 
Madame, etes-vous me*re ? oui, je 

le suis. lb. 
Madame, etes-vous malade ? oui, 

je le suis* lb. 



Is that your opinion? do not 
question it 

Are those your servants? yes, 

they are 
Ladies, are you the strangers that 

have been announced to me ? 

yes, we are 
Madam, are you the sick person, 

for whom 1 have been called ? 

yes, I am 
Madam, are you the mother of 

this child ? yes, I am 
Ladies, are you pleased with this 

music ? yes, we are 

She is unhappy, and I much fear 
that she will continue so for 
life 

Madam, are you a mother ? yes, 
I am 

Madam, are you sick ? yes, I am 



ON SOME DIFFICULTIES. 



539 



Madame, depuis quel temps etes- 
vous mariee ? je le suis depuis 
un an. Sect. Ill, p. 429 

Y a-t-il long -temps que vous etes 
arrivee ? je le suis depuis quinze 
jours. lb. 

Aristote croyait que le monde etait 
de toute eternite ; mais Platon 
ne le croyait pas. lb. 

Quoique cettefemme montre plus de 
fermete que les autres, elle rtest 
pas cela la moins afflige'e. lb. 

Cettefemme a Vart de repandre des 
larmes dans le temps' meme qu'elle 
est le moins affligee. lb. 

VII. 

De Phrases sur les differentes 
Regies du Participle Passe. 

La nouvelle piece a-t-elle ete ap- 

plaudie ? R. I, p. 376 
Vos parens y seront-ils arrives a 

temps ? lb. 
Elle s'est donne de belles robes. 

Obs. p. 376 
Elles nous ont apporte de superbes 

ceillets. R. II, p. 377 
Cette ruse ne lui a pas reussi. lb. 

La vie tranquille que fai menee 
depuis dix ans, a beaucoup con- 
tribue a me faire oublier mes 
malheurs. R. I, p. 378 

Les lettres que fat revues m'ont 
beaucoup afflige. lb. 

Que de peines vous vous etes don- 
nees. lb. 

Quelle tache vous etes-vous impo- 
see. lb. 

C'est une satyre que fai retrouvee 
dans mes papier s. lb. 

Les lettres qyCa ecntes Pline le 
Jeune, quelque agreables qu' elles 
soient, se ressentent neanmoins un 
pen de la decadence du gout parmi 
les Romains. lb. 



Madam, how long have you been 
married? a year 

Is it long since you arrived ? a 
fortnight 

Aristotle believed the world to 
have been from all eternity, 
but Plato did not 

Although this woman shows 
more resolution than the others 
she is nevertheless not the less 
afflicted 

This woman has the art of shed- 
ding tears, when she is the least 
afflicted 

VII. 

Of Phrases upon the different Rules 
of the Participle Past. 

Did the new piece meet with ap- 
plause ? 

Will your relations arrive there 
in time ? 

She has given herself fine gowns 

They have brought us beautiful 
pinks 

He has not succeeded in this 
stratagem 

The quiet life I have led these 
ten years has greatly contri- 
buted to make me forget my 
misfortunes 

The letters I have received have 
greatly afflicted me 

What a deal of trouble you have 
given yourself 

What a task you have imposed 
upon yourself 

It is a satire that I have again 
met with in my papers 

The letters which the Younger 
Pliny has written, however 
agreeable they may be, savour 
nevertheless a little of the de- 
cline of taste among the Ro- 
mans 



540 



EXAMPLES OF PHRASES. 



Je ne serais pas entreavec vous dans 

tous ces details de grammaire, si 

je tie les avais cms necessaires* 

Obs., p. 378 
L'Egypte^etait vendue celebre par 

la sag esse de ses his long -temps 

av ant que la Grece sortit de la 

barbarie. lb. 
Q*est une des plus grandes mer- 

veilles qu'on ait vues. lb. 
Uhomme delettres dont vous m' avez 

parle, a un gout exquis. R II, 

p. 380 
Vous avez tres-bien instruit vos 

eleves. lb. 
Lucrice s'est donne" la mort. 1 b. 
La secheresse quHl y a eu au 

printemps a fait perir tous les 
fruits. R. Ill, p. 381 
Je rCai point reussi malgre les con- 

seils que vous mi! avez conseille 

de prendre. lb. 
Quelle aventure vous est-il arrive ? 

lb. 
Cette femme s'est proposee pour 

modele a ses enfans. Obs, , p. 382 
Cette femme s'est propose d'enseig- 

ner la geographie et Vhistoire a 

ses enfans. lb 

VIII. 

De Phrases sur les Principaux 
Rapports des Modes et des 
Temps.* 

Je Vattendais depuis long -temps* 

quand U vint mejoindre 
II sortait au moment meme quefen- 

trais 
Je commengais a avoir des craintes 

sur la reussite de voire affaire, 

lorsquefai recu voire lettre 
Des que feus fait quelques visites 

indispensables, je rentrai chez- 

moi, et je ne sortis plus 



I would not have entered into 
these grammatical details with 
you, had I not thought them 
necessary 

Egypt had become celebrated for 
the wisdom of its laws long 
before Greece had emerged 
from barbarism 

It is one of the greatest wonders 
that has ever been seen 

The man of letters you spoke to 
me of has an excellent taste 

You have instructed your pupils 

extremely well 
Lucretia killed herself 
The dry weather that we had in 

the spring has destroyed all the 

fruit 
I have not succeeded, notwith- 
standing the steps you advised 

me to take 
What adventure have you met 

with ? 
This woman proposed herself as 

a model for her children 
This woman proposed to teach 

geography and history to her 

children 

VIII. 

Of Phrases upon the Principal 
Helations of Words and Tenses. 

I had waited a long time for him, 
when he came to me 

He was going out at the time I 
was entering 

I was beginning to be apprehen- 
sive of the success of your 
business when I received your 
letter 

As soon as I had paid some in- 
dispensable visits, I went home 
and did not go out afterwards 



* See on the use of Moods and Tenses, and the Relations of different Tenses 
and different Moods, from page 471 to page 496. 



ON SOME DIFFICULTIES. 



541 



J'avais deja tout prepare pour mon 
depart, lorsque des affaires im- 
prevues nrCont force a le differer 
de quelques jours 

Vous etiez deja sorti, quand je me 

presentai chez-vous 
J'avais deja litre a I 'impression 

mon ouvrage, lorsque vous me 

demandiez, si je le donnerais 

bientot au public 
Lorsque j'ai eu termine mon affaire 

vous avez commence la voire 
Lorsque j'eus eu dejeune,je montai 

a cheval, et je fas a Londres 
Lorsque j'aurai hi la nouvelle piece 

je vous dirai avec franchise ce 

que j'en pense 
Iriez-vous a Rome si vous le pou- 

viez? oui.j'irais 
Auriez-vous consenti a ces condi- 
tions, si on vous les avait pro- 

posees ? 
Irez-vous demain a Londres, si vous 

le pouvez ? oui,jirai 
E sera surement parti, si vous lavez 

voulu 
Vous eussiez laisse echapper une 

occasion si favorable, si Von ne 

vous exit averti a temps 

IX, 

Continuation des memes Phrases. 

On dit que vous partez aujourd'hui 
pour Paris 

Tout le monde soutient que vous ac- 
cepter ez la place qu'on vous off re 

On soupgonne que vous aviez hier 

recu cette agreable nouvelle quand 

on vous rencontra 
Beaucoup de vos amis croient que 

vous partltes hier pour la cam- 

pagne 

Le brttit se repand que vous avez 
fait une grosse perte 



I had already made every prepa- 
ration for my departure, when 
some unexpected business oc- 
curred, that obliged me to defer 
it for some days 

You were already gone out when 
I called upon you 

My work had been sent to be 
printed when you asked me if 
I should soon bring it out 

When my business was over you 
began yours 

When I had done breakfast I got 
on horseback and went to 
London 

When I have read the new piece 
I will candidly give you my 
opinion of it 

Would you go to Rome if it were 
in your power ? yes, T would 

Would you have agreed to these 
terms, had they been proposed 
to you ? 

Shall you go to London to-mor- 
row if you can ? Yes, I shall 

He would certainly have set out, if 
you wished it 

You would have let so favourable 
an opportunity slip, had you 
not been warned in time 

IX. 

The same Phrases continued. 

It is said that you set off to-day 
for Paris 

Every one maintains that you 
will accept of the place that is 
offered to you 

It is suspected that you had re- 
ceived this agreeable intelli- 
gence when you were met 
yesterday 

Many of your friends believe that 
you set out yesterday for the 
country 

There is a report that you have 
met with a considerable loss 



542 



EXAMPLES OF PHRASES 



J'apprends a IHnstant que vous 
fussiez parti ily a trois jours, si 
des engagements, que vous aviez 
contractus depuis long-temps, ne 
vous avaient retenu 

N'est-ilpas vrai que vous partiriez 
aujourd'hui si vous le pouviez ? 

Est-il vrai que vous seriez parti 
depuis long-temps pour la cam- 
pagne, si voire amour pour les 
arts ne vous avait retenu a la 
ville ? 

Je ne crois pas que vous partiez, 
quoique tout le monde I 'assure. 

Je ne croyais pas quit fut shot de 
retour 

Ilafallu qu'il ait eu affaire a Men 
d$s personnes 

Je doute que votre ami fut venu a 
bout de sesprojets s'il n'avait pas 
ete fortement proteye 

II n J est point dhomme, quelque me- 
rite qu'il ait, qui nefut tres-mor- 
tifie, s'il savait tout ce qu'on 
pense de lui 

Vous ne vous persuadiez pas que 
les affaires pussent si mat tourner 



I have this moment learnt that 
you would have set out three 
days since, had not engage- 
ments which you had formed 
long ago, detained you 

Is it not true that you would set 
out to-day if you could ? 

Is it true that you would have 
set out for the country long 
since, had not your love for the 
arts detained you in town 

I do not imagine that you will set 
out although everybody asserts 
it 

I did not think he had returned 
so soon 

He must have had business with 
a great many people 

I doubt that your friend would 
have succeeded in his plans had 
he not been strongly patronised 

There is not a man, whatever 
merit he may possess, that 
would not be very much mor- 
tified were he to know every 
thing that is thought of him 

You never persuaded yourself 
that matters could have taken 
so unfortunate a turn 



X. 

De Phrases sur le Negative Ne. 
II i\ y y a pas beaucoup d' argent chez 

les gens de lettres. A. 2, p. 500 
27 r\y a point de ressource dans 

une personne qui na point d'es- 

prit. lb. 
C'est a tort que vous taccusez de 

jouer ,- je vous assure quHl ne 

joue point- lb. 
Entrez dans le salon ; vous pourrez 

lui purler -, it ne joue pas lb. 
Si pour avoir du Men, il en coute a 

la proMte, je n'en veux point. 

lb. 

Mien rfest sur avec les capricieux : 
vous croyez etrebien enfaveur; 



X. 

Of Phrases upon the Negative ne. 

There is not much money to be 
found among men of letters 

There are no resources in a per- 
son without sense 

\ou accuse him wrongfully of 
gaming : I assure you he never 
games 

Go into the room, you may speak 

to him ; he is not playing 
I do not wish to make a fortune 

if it can only be done at the 

expense of honour 
Nothing is certain with capricious 

people : you think yourself in 



ON SOME DIFFICULTIES. 



543 



point du tout, Vinstant de la plus 

belle humeur est suivie de la plus 

fdcheuse. lb. 
Vous ne cessez de nous repeter les 

mimes choses. Q. Ill, p. 101 
Je nauiais ose vous en parler le 

premier. lb. 

Malgre ses protections, il iTa pu 
reussir dans ses projets. lb. 

Cet ouvrage serait fort bon, n'etait 
pour la negligence du style. lb. 

Y-a-il quelqyCun dont elle ne me- 

dise. lb. 
J'aipris tant de gout pour une vie 

retiree que je ne sors presque 

jamais. Q. IV, p. 501. 
Voila ce qui s'est passe ; n'en par- 

lez a personne. lb. 
JMon parti est pris ; ne nVen par- 

lez plus. lb. 
Wemployez aucun de ces moyens ; 

ils sont indignes de vous. Id. 

Rien n'est plusjoli> lb. 

Je ne dis rien que je ne pense. 

lb. p. 502 
Je ne fais jamais oVexces que je 

n'en sois incommode. lb. 

XL 

Continuation des memes Phrases. 

C est un homme pour quije n'ai ni 
amour, ni estime. lb. 

7/ rv'est ni assez prudent ni assez 
eclair e. lb. 

Je vous assure que je ne le fre~ 
quente ni ne le vois. lb. 

Ne /aire que parcourir les diffe- 
rentes branches des connaissances 
humaines sans s'arreter a aucune, 
c'est moins chercher a sHnstruire 
qu'd tuer le temps, lb. 503 

Que n'etes-vous toujours aussi 
complaisant? lb. 



favour ; by no means : the 

moment of the best humour is 

followed by that of the worst 
You are constantly repeating the 

same things to us 
I should not have dared to have 

been the first to speak to you 

of it 
With all his interest he has not 

been able to succeed in his 

plans 
This work would be very good, 

were it not for the negligence 

of the style 
Is there any one she dares not 

slander? 
I have acquired so great a taste 

for retirement, that I seldom 

go abroad 
This is what has passed : do not 

speak of it to any one 
My resolution is fixed : talk to 

me no more of it 
Do not employ any of these 

measures, they are unworthy 

of you, 
Nothing is more beautiful 
I never speak but what I think 

I never commit an excess without 
suffering by it 



XL 

Continuation of the same Phrases. 

He is a man for whom I have 
neither love nor esteem 

He is neither sufficiently prudent 
nor enlightened 

I assure you I neither frequent 
him nor see him 

To go through the different 
branches of human knowledge 
only without fixing upon any 
one of them, is not to seek lor 
instruction but to kill time 

Why are you not at all times 
equally complaisant? 



544 



EXAMPLES OF PHRASES. 



line lefera pas, a moins que vous 

ne/'z/ engagiez. Q. IV, p. 503 
// rCira pas si vous ne I en priez. 

lb. 
II nous a menaces de se venger ; 

nous n'avons fait qu'e?i rire. lb. 
Trop d> insouciance ne peut que 

nuire. lb. 
Que devenez-vous ? il y a trois 

mois que nous ne vows avons vu. 

lb. 
Comment vous etes-vous porte de- 

puis que nous ne vows auows vm ? 
C'est Men pire gw'tm ne le disait. 

lb. p. 504 
Pen s'en faut que je n'aie donne 

tete baissee. dans le piege. lb. 
Dites la verite en toute occasion ; on 

meprise toujours ceux qui patient 

autrement qu'ils ne pensent. lb. 
Ne desesperez pas que la verite ne 

sefassejour a la longue. lb. 
Je ne disconviens pas que la 

chose ne soit ainsi. lb. 
Prenez garde qu'on ne vous en- 

tralne dans quelque fausse de- 
marche, lb. 
e/'empecherai bien qu'on ne vous 

nuise dans cette affaire. lb. 
// craint qu'on ne le soupgonnt 

d' avoir trempe dans ce complot, 

lb. p. 505 
On lui a donne d'exceilens conseits, 

de crainte qu'i'Z ne mangudt loc- 

casion de faire connaltre ce quHl 

est en etat de faire. lb. 
J'y ai long -temps travaille ; je ne 

saurais en venir a bout. lb. 
Vous feriez mieux de vous (aire ; 

vous ne savez ce que vous dites. 

lb. 
Vous ne sauriez me faire un plus 

grand plaisir. lb. 



He will not do it unless you per- 
suade him to it 

He will not go, if you do not 
request it of him 

He has threatened us with ven- 
geance; we only laughed at him 

Too great supineness cannot but 
be hurtful 

What has become of you ? We 
have not t een you these three 
months 

How have you been since w r e saw 
you? 

It is much worse th was said 

I was near falling blindly into the 

snare 
Tell the truth on all occasions ; 

those who speak what they do 

not think are always despised 
Do not despair that the truth will 

appear in time 
I admit that it is so 

Take care that you are not misled 



I shall prevent them from doing 
you any harm in this business 

He is apprehensive that he is sus- 
pected of being concerned in 
this plot 

Th£y have given him excellent 
advice, lest he should lose the 
opportunity of showing w r hat 
he was capable of doing 

I have been long employed about 
it ; I cannot accomplish it 

You had better be silent, you do 
not know what you are saying 

You cannot give me greater plea- 
sure 



■yVV ffiP? * '.fyvsy jmf^^ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




003 117 907 5 



PH ■ 



N . 




ttt 



* 



\<*. * 









M 






M 



^^HBl 



9 



■:■*. lx? 



